Project Gutenberg's Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park, by Adolph Murie This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park Author: Adolph Murie Illustrator: Olaus Murie Release Date: February 17, 2020 [EBook #61433] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS OF MOUNT MCKINLEY *** Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park, Alaska MAMMALS OF MOUNT McKINLEY NATIONAL PARK ALASKA by Adolph Murie Sketches by Olaus Murie Photographs by Charles J. Ott Denali Wilderness Introduction Grizzly Bear Black Bear Caribou Moose Dall Sheep Mountain goat Wolf Coyote Red fox Lynx Wolverine Marten Mink Mount McKinley Natural History Association Published by the Mount McKinley Natural History Association NATIONAL PARK SERVICE Published in cooperation with the National Park Service Copyright August, 1962 by Mount McKinley Natural History Association Printed in U.S.A. Pisani Printing Company, San Francisco CONTENTS 1 3 7 11 11 15 17 20 21 22 24 26 27 29 30 River Otter Short-tailed weasel Least weasel Snowshoe rabbit Collared Pika Hoary marmot Arctic ground squirrel Red squirrel Northern flying squirrel Porcupine Beaver Muskrat Shrews Bat The Mouse World Checklist of Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park Hay mouse Brown lemming Bog lemming Chestnut-cheeked vole Tundra vole Meadow vole Red-backed mouse 1 31 31 33 33 35 37 39 40 43 43 47 49 50 52 52-54 56 Caribou migrating from summer range. Denali Wilderness The national park idea represents a far-reaching cultural achievement, for here we raise our thoughts above the average, and enter a sphere in which the intangible values of the human heart and spirit take precedence. Mingled with the landscape of McKinley Park is the spirit of 2 3 the primeval. The region is dedicated to the preservation of wilderness. Here we try to refrain from the coarser uses of nature legitimate elsewhere. All the plants and animals enjoy a natural and normal life without human restrictions. Freedom prevails—the foxes are free to dig burrows where they will; to hunt ptarmigan, ground squirrels and mice as the spirit moves; and they share in the ownership of the blueberry and crowberry patches. The grizzlies wander over their ancestral home unmolested; dig roots and ground squirrels, graze grass, and harvest berries according to whatever menu appeals to them. The “bad” wolf seeks an honest living as of yore; he is a respected citizen, morally on a par with everyone else. His hunting of mice, ground squirrels, caribou and Dall sheep is his way of life and he has the freedom to follow it. No species of plant is favored above the rest, and they grow together, quietly competing, or living in adjusted composure. Our task is to perpetuate this freedom and purity of nature, this ebb and flow of life—first, by insuring ample park boundaries so that the region is large enough to maintain the natural relationships, and secondly, to hold man’s intrusions to the minimum. Most of us feel with Thoreau that “The wilderness is near as well as dear to every man.” We come to McKinley to watch; to catch a glimpse of the primeval. We come close to the tundra flowers, the lichens, and the animal life. Each of us will take some inspiration home; a touch of the tundra will enter our lives—and, deep inside, make of us all poets and kindred spirits. Our national parks, here in the north, are set aside, not only for Alaskans, or for Americans, but for all humanity. To preserve the delicate charm and the wildness of the region our thoughts must be guided by a morality encompassing the spiritual welfare of the universe. Tundra in the foreground and on the far side of Thorofare Bar. Muldrow Glacier shows at the foot of Mount McKinley. Introduction 5 4 Bear and cub. The Mount McKinley region was set aside as a National Park in 1917. The foresighted conservationists who advocated National Park status for this country were activated chiefly by their desire to preserve the flora and fauna in its pristine condition. An effort was made to give the park ample boundaries, but desirable extensions were later made, and it is possible that in the future additional adjustments will be desirable from the standpoint of assuring a self-sustaining ecological unit. A drive from the Nenana River, the eastern boundary, to Wonder Lake, some 90 miles to the west and directly north of Mount McKinley, is always a fresh adventure. No two days are the same. One day we may see more grizzlies than usual; on another trip we may be especially fortunate and catch sight of a wolf or a wolverine. It is desirable to drive slowly and to stop occasionally to examine the landscape for animal life—the mountains for Dall sheep, the river bars and passes for grizzlies and caribou, and the water, for birds, beaver, or moose. Some of the birds to be seen along the way are the ptarmigan—willow ptarmigan in the low country, rock ptarmigan on the high passes (the white-tailed are confined to higher elevations and probably will not be seen)—the long-tailed jaegers, the whimbrel (Hudsonian curlew), golden plovers, short-billed gulls, golden eagles, and several kinds of ducks. Ornithologists will be especially interested in seeing such asiatic birds as the wheatear and the willow warbler. Much of the park is treeless tundra, but strips of woods follow the rivers far into the park, and patches grow here and there on the adjacent mountain slopes. Timberline varies according to soil and exposure; in places it reaches elevations of over 3,500 feet. White spruce is the common conifer. Black spruce is confined to poorly drained and boggy areas. Along the north boundary I have seen a few patches of tamarack. Cottonwood and aspen are widely distributed and a few tree birches grow at lower elevations. Along the McKinley River an extensive strip of cottonwoods may be seen from the highway. The tundra supports a growth of willow and dwarf birch. Over twenty kinds of willow occur in the park. They range in size from small forms only 2 or 3 inches in height, to brushy growths 20 feet tall. In places the small willows may grow dense enough to form a sod. These shrubs are highly important for wildlife. Alder brush is widely distributed and plentiful on canyon slopes; near Wonder Lake there are many clumps of alder in the rolling tundra. The low ground cover over the park consists of mosses, lichens, sedges, grasses, horsetails, and herbaceous plants—many species of each. Early flowers may begin blooming in late April and early May, and at the higher elevations some blooms may be seen in late summer. The annual berry crop is bounteous and is an important source of food for a host of birds and mammals. Even the mountain sheep have been found enjoying the blueberries. Blueberry, crowberry, cranberry, buffaloberry, and alpine bearberry are all widely distributed. The berries begin to ripen in late July. With the melting of the snow in the spring, the white landscape of winter is transformed into a brown countryside—brown grasses, sedges, and leafless shrubbery. Snow fields still persist on the mountain slopes, and the spruces are dark green, but brown hues seem to dominate one’s impression of the tundra at this time. In June—the time varies a little with the year—the landscape is magically transformed from a dull brown to the brightest green. Early in August spots of red and yellow colors begin to show. By late August and early September the country is again transformed and we have a world of crimson and other shades of red, trimmed with yellow and gold of willow, aspen, and cottonwood. The alders add contrast for they remain summer-green throughout the autumn color season. Over much of the country the ground remains frozen below a depth of a few feet. In some shaded areas where the ground is deeply carpeted with moss the soil remains frozen within less than 2 feet of the surface. The continuous thawing of the soil in summer keeps the surface moist until autumn. The thawed surface soil tends in places to creep imperceptibly down slopes as it becomes water-soaked, even though plant life has a strong stabilizing influence. Occasionally the soil becomes saturated with moisture to considerable depths and we have rather large land slides such as the one that recently formed Slide Lake on Stony Creek; the one that shows prominently on the south slope of Sable Mountain; and one to the south of the road at about 3-Mile that caused spruces to lean in various directions. Thawed, water-logged surface soil rests uneasily on the frozen sub-stratum. 6 Typical glacial stream. Grizzlies and caribou may often be seen in the streambed and Dall sheep on the mountain slopes. A number of parallel, northward-flowing streams head in glaciers lying along the north slope of the Alaska Range. The streams are not large—most of them can be waded without getting too wet—so it is surprising to find them bordered by wide gravel bars. This is due to lack of stream stabilization. In summer the streams carry a load of silt which may be dropped along the way. Channels are continually being gouged out here and filled in somewhere else so that the stream keeps breaking over its sides and forming additional channels. High water, due to a warm day and much glacier melting, or to heavy rains, may cause the streams to flow into entirely new channels. When the main stream reaches the side of the gravel bar it will erode the bank and thus broaden the river bar. This type of erosion is noticeable just below the Teklanika bridge. Gravel bars that have not been invaded for a long period may become covered with vegetation, and it is on some of these old bars that we often see grizzlies digging roots in the spring of the year. But even these bars are temporary. One such bar on the Toklat River was invaded by part of the river a few years ago and much of the sod is being washed away today. Physiographic processes are all very active in the region. On many slopes we see the turf breaking away, and here and there a small land slip. Typical ice blister. Those who come to the park the early part of the summer may see extensive fields of ice on the river bars. These are the result of what is 8 7 called overflow. During cold weather the ice on the streams freezes so thick that there is not room for all of the water to pass under the ice, and since it must run somewhere it develops pressure and breaks out on the surface where it spreads widely underneath the snow. Here it freezes. This process continues throughout the winter and often forms ice patches many feet thick. When one is dog-mushing on rivers the overflow water under the snow is a hazard before it freezes, and the driver of a dogteam must watch to avoid such spots. Conditions are worst during the coldest weather, at a time when a wetting is most serious. Out in the park there are no trails except for one down Savage Canyon. The country is so open that trails are not needed. The river bars furnish excellent hiking, and even walking across the upland tundra is easy. A number of campgrounds are located along the road between the Nenana River and Wonder Lake. This booklet is made available as a quick reference pertaining to the mammals in the park. The comments on each species are brief but perhaps sufficient to suggest their status. Distances are deceiving so field glasses should be used in searching the landscape for the larger animals such as sheep, caribou, and bears. GRIZZLY BEAR Ursus horribilis The grizzly’s domain in the park extends from the glaciers at the heads of the rivers, northward to the north boundary. The grizzly may be discovered on an old river bar, on one of the low passes between the rivers, or traveling high on a mountain slope. One of the favorite haunts along the road is Sable Pass, where each summer one to four females with cubs, along with a few lone or mated bears, take residence. Any bear seen out in the park is almost certain to be a grizzly because the black bear is confined to the wooded low country along the east and north boundaries. The hump on the shoulder and the dishfaced profile (rather than almost straight, as in the black bear) are good field characters. The general coloration varies from cream color (rare) to straw color, brown, chocolate, and black. The legs are always blackish. The fur fades considerably during the spring and summer. Hence, the new coat, fully developed by autumn, is always darker, and gives the bear a new, fresh look. One old male grizzly, not very fat, weighed 650 pounds. The females are considerably smaller. Because of the long claws on the forepaws, the track of the grizzly can be readily distinguished from that of the black bear, whose forepaw claws are shorter and more curved. In the spring when grizzlies first come forth from their dens they seem to do much wandering over the higher slopes. At this season I have noted their tracks leading to the remains of sheep, caribou, and moose that had succumbed during the winter. Usually the wolves, foxes, and wolverines have long since feasted on the fleshy parts, but the bears are happy to crush the bones that remain on the premises and thus obtain a taste of the succulent marrow. The spring and early-summer food is chiefly the root of the peavine (Hedysarum alpinum americanum) that flourishes on old vegetated river bars and on many mountain slopes. Using both paws, with their long claws, and straining backward with his body weight, chunks of sod are turned over to expose the thick peavine roots. With delicate strokes, his paws further expose the roots, which taste much like the garden variety of pea. So extensive is the root-digging at times that an area may look like a plowed field when the bear has finished. At this season, because of these food habits, bears can often be seen on the open river bars and on the ridge slopes. Cranberries and crowberries that have wintered under the snow are often eaten in spring. In June, green vegetation becomes available and a drastic change of diet results. The root digging is terminated for something better. A grass, (Arctagrostis latifolia), with a stiff and juicy stalk, and growing in swales and wettish areas, is a favorite. The bears also graze extensively on horsetail (Equisetum arvense), mountain-sorrel (Oxyria digyna), and the tall showy white saxifrage (Boykinia richardsonii). A pea (Oxytropis viscida), growing abundantly far up the streams on old river bars is extensively grazed. The grizzly is quite fastidious in his feeding on dock (Rumex fenestratus). He severs the thick juicy stem with a bite and as he chews, the large reddish seed head drops from his lips, neatly discarded. The grizzlies continue grazing and chomping green grasses and herbs until berry time when another major change of food habits takes place. Some grazing still persists but now the bears turn wholeheartedly to blueberries, crowberries, and the bitter scarlet buffaloberries, the three species of berries most abundant and available. The lush berry of alpine bearberry (Arctous alpinus), that ground-hugging woody plant that colors patches of the landscape a brilliant scarlet in autumn, are sometimes eaten, but not with any efficiency. The berry diet continues through the autumn but at this season a few roots may again be sought. The bear belongs to the order Carnivora and yet little mention has been made of meat in the diet. He is perhaps, so to speak, a victim of evolution and has had to adjust. As his mature size became ever larger through eons of time, he became too slow to catch large herbivores such as the caribou, and his large body required more sustenance than could be secured by digging for mice and ground squirrels under usual circumstances. Therefore he had to turn more and more to vegetation which could be secured in quantity. This is not as drastic a change as we might offhand suppose. It is one chiefly of degree, because we find carnivores such as the fox and the marten turning to a berry diet for a period, from choice. But it appears that the grizzly would like more meat than is generally available. This I infer from the quantity he eats when he finds a carcass and from the avidity with which bears of all kinds seek spawning fish when available. The only animal that the grizzly consistently hunts in the park is the ground squirrel, but a squirrel contributes only a mouthful and its capture usually requires excessive time and energy. 9 10 Sometimes a squirrel is surprised and captured before it can disappear in a burrow. But generally a squirrel is secured only after extensive excavating which may involve as much as half an hour, and not infrequently the bear, after much digging, fails to unearth his intended victim. In years when meadow mice and lemmings are especially abundant, bears may make their capture a project which contributes at least a tasty diversion. Caribou and moose calves may occasionally be captured when very young, but the season for this food is short. Occasionally tidings come to a bear’s keen nose that carrion lies upwind, and the lucky bear keeps gorging until only a few bones and patches of hide remain. After feeding on a carcass the bear often covers it with sod and vegetation. One fall at Stony Creek I watched a bear at a cache which showed up as a dark mound surrounded by a dark circular area from which the sod had been torn loose. For an hour the bear kept methodically raking the surrounding area beyond. Grizzly bears digging for ground squirrels. He was scraping the loose vegetation toward the cache, working leisurely with one paw at a time. The loosened material was pushed toward the cache as the work progressed. When I examined the area later, I noted a circular patch, extending out 20 feet from all sides of the carcass, that had been combed clean of loose vegetation. The bear finally lay down on the cache to wait for digestion to create more space for this rich fare. North of Wonder Lake a grizzly had similarly covered a caribou that a hunter had left lying in the field. The bear was not at the cache, but since most of the carcass was still intact, he probably was not far away. I found some carcasses that were not covered with sod. A mother and two yearlings at Polychrome Pass left a caribou carcass without covering it and retired to some steep cliffs overlooking the area. The following day they rested near the carcass, but still no effort was made to cover it. Mating takes place in May, June and early July, and a pair remains together for two or three weeks. I suspect that a male might look for a second marriage following the termination of the first. One large crippled male was successfully consorting with two females at the same time, neither female objecting to the presence of the other—in fact, both probably preferred it that way. The cubs are born in the hibernating den in midwinter, are 8 or 9 inches long, and weigh less than 2 pounds at birth. The number of cubs in a litter ordinarily varies from one to three, two being the most frequent. The cubs not only nurse throughout the first summer but to about the same extent during their second summer abroad, when they are robust yearlings. I had been surprised to find yearlings regularly nursing, but it was a greater surprise to observe mother grizzlies nursing cubs over 2 years old, in their third summer abroad. The protracted nursing period indicates a breeding interval of females with cubs, of three or more years, since females followed by nursing yearlings have not been seen consorting with a male. The dens used for hibernation are excavated by the grizzly if natural caves are not available. A den is usually dug on a rather steep slope. The entrance to one I examined was about 2 feet wide and a little less than 2½ feet high. A tunnel 6 feet long led to the chamber which was roughly 4 feet in diameter. Cinquefoil brush and grass had been used for the bed. This den was still usable six years after it was dug. But another den dug in October caved in the following summer. It lacked the firm protective sod roof of the more durable den. 12 11 Bears, like humans, enjoy a good back-scratching. Trees along a trail or on some strategic point are much used, as shown by the rubbing signs and the adhering hairs. If trees are not available, willow brush, a boulder or a sod bank may be used. The corner of a log cabin is considered an excellent surface. A pole lying on the ground is a fair substitute, and where no structure is available and a bear feels itchy he may lie on the ground with all four feet in the air, wriggling ludicrously with excessive energy to do the job. Generally the grizzlies wander freely over the tundra. But they are not averse to taking advantage of a convenient trail when they have a definite destination. Trails that are much used by bears, such as we sometimes find along the bank of a river or through a woods, show a series of worn depressions. These depressions are due to the grizzlies’ tendency to step in the same tracks. They no doubt have been formed by the passage of many bears over a long period. Pieces of such bear trails may be seen a half mile above Teklanika bridge and a short distance below the bridge, on the west side of the river bar. The grizzly has survived in only a few states, more by accident than by our planning for his future. In Alaska we have a great opportunity for giving the grizzly and the rest of the fauna ample room for carrying on their living in a natural, free manner. The grizzly needs extensive wilderness country for his way of life, and wild country is also vital for the highest development of human culture. If we provide for the future of the grizzly, we at the same time provide wilderness for our own needs. BLACK BEAR Euarctos americanus The black bear is widely distributed in Alaska. In the park it is confined to the forested areas along the north and east boundaries. I have occasionally seen one near the Nenana River and in the Wonder Lake area I have seen them 3 or 4 miles north of the park feeding on blueberries. Black bears may be black or brown, but those I have seen at McKinley have all been of the black color phase. The black bear lacks the pronounced shoulder hump of the grizzly. The tan muzzle is also distinctive. Equipped with strong, curved claws, the black bear climbs trees with surprising agility, a talent the grizzly seems to lack. The food habits of the black bear are similar to those of the grizzly, but in general they spend more time turning over rocks and tearing apart logs in search of insect life. They feed on herbs and grass, are fond of berries, hunt mice and dig out ground squirrels, and are ever on the alert for carrion. In the Rocky Mountains and on the West Coast, they occasionally strip the bark from trunks of spruces, pines, and firs in order to feed on the inner cambium layer. Along the coast of Alaska they sometimes congregate to feed on spawning salmon. Where we have bears we have potential bear problems. Roadside feeding of bears creates beggar bears—always dangerous. Allowing bears to obtain food in cabins or camps demoralizes them, encourages them in a life of plunder and general anti-human depredations—the usual outcome is damage to humans and the death of the bears. A point of view generally disregarded by all is the effect of garbage on the bears. No garbage should be made available to bears anywhere for the simple reason that such artificial food interferes with the natural feeding habits of bears and their natural distribution, tending to congregate large numbers of them in a limited area. Administrators and public alike must ever be heedful of the problem. Clean campsites and proper garbage disposal are desirable in this regard. CARIBOU Rangifer arcticus stonei The caribou is a circumpolar deer adapted to life in the Arctic. Both sexes carry antlers and even the calves grow a spike 6 or 8 inches long. The cow’s antlers are small and branching; those of the old bull are towering and picturesque, with a well-developed brow tine extending over the nose from one or both antlers. As you see the caribou in his easy, swinging trot, you will perhaps notice his big feet. The hoofs, rounded and spreading, and the dew claws well developed, serve him as snowshoes in winter, and as a broad support in the soft tundra. 13 Caribou. Each spring the caribou appear in faded, dun coats, their color pattern gone, the long hair worn and frayed. Winter hardships are behind and the sprouting, nutritious, vitamin-packed green forage is available—nature’s restorative. On the hummocks the caribou are already finding the new growth of sedge hidden by the old, leached, brown blades. As the winter coat is shed, and the new black pelage shows in patches, the animals have a moth-eaten look. In May and early June, the caribou that have wintered along the north boundary of the park and northward to Lake Minchumina, move into the park, continue eastward to the Teklanika and Sanctuary rivers, and cross to the south side of the Alaska Range over the glaciers at the heads of these rivers. At this time the bands are small, numbering from a few individuals to one or two hundred. After feeding on the south side of the range for 2 or 3 weeks, the caribou return en masse, usually in late June or early July, but in 1960 about the middle of June. Herds numbering one or two thousand are not unusual, and I have seen an assemblage of four or five thousand. The herds cross Sable Pass and travel parallel with the road to Muldrow Glacier. From there they may strike northward or continue on westward. In August and September at least a few caribou may be found especially in the Wonder Lake area. Caribou are inordinately fond of lichens which they eagerly feed upon at all seasons. In summer they take advantage of the variety of foods available and feed extensively on grasses, many herbaceous species, willows, and lichens. Lichens are much sought in fall and winter, and in these seasons grasses and sedges continue to be major foods. Caribou are plagued by warble flies and nostril flies throughout the summer. These beelike insects cause the caribou great annoyance. The warble fly lays eggs on the hair of the legs and underparts of the body. The eggs soon hatch, the larvae penetrate the hide, and move to the back region where they emerge as swollen larvae in the spring. The nostril flies deposit living larvae in the nostrils. The larvae become lodged back in the throat in a mass and the following spring are coughed out; they pupate on the ground, and soon emerge as terrorizing flies. A caribou may dash away in panic to escape a fly, then stop in a wet sedgy depression and hold its nose close to the ground. Thus it may stand for long periods if not attacked. On sunny days when the flies are very active, the movement of the herds is drastically influenced. The large herds may seek a high, breezy ridge, or a snowfield, to minimize the attack. Commonly, one or two thousand on such days assemble in a compact group on a broad gravel bar where they may stand all day. Should clouds cover the sun, the herd disperses to feed, but again converges if the sun reappears. 14 15 A caribou bull. By midsummer the old hair has been shed and the caribou are in a short blackish coat that continues to grow. Not until September is this new pelage fully developed. By then it has become a rich chocolate brown, trimmed with white. The pattern is most striking in the old bulls. A silvery cape covers the neck and part of the shoulders and forms a mane on the throat. A white line extends back along the sides of the body, and the belly is white. The blunt nose is tipped with white and an oval white patch surrounds the tail. A white patch shows the location of the upper gland on the hind legs. White anklets border each shiny black hoof. The pattern is similar, but much more subdued in the cows and younger bulls. The magnificent antlers of the old bulls have hardened by late August. The velvet covering them during their growth is now rubbed off with a vigor suggesting the oncoming rut. At first the white antlers are often stained pinkish by the blood in the velvet. Continued rubbing on the brush removes the pinkish color and the antlers develop to a rich brown. The bulls begin to spar soon after rubbing off the velvet. Even before serious fighting occurs, a bull may show his superiority to some of his companions. At this time two strange bulls do not hesitate to approach each other and, with no preliminaries, join antlers and try to drive each other back. These early fights are brief and on a more or less friendly basis. A sharp prong may cause a bull to pull away and be unwilling to resume sparring. But later, when a bull has acquired cows, up to a dozen or two, he herds them constantly, and fights all challengers. The single reddish calf is generally born in May. His strength and speed develop rapidly so that he is soon able to follow the herds in their hurried travels. By autumn he has acquired a coat similar to that of the adults. A close relationship exists between the caribou and the wolf, one that has prevailed for thousands of years. Although the wolf largely subsists on caribou over much of the north, natural adjustments have prevailed so that caribou have prospered in the presence of wolf populations. Wolves prey extensively on caribou calves in spring. When a wolf takes after a herd of caribou containing calves, both old and young hold their own for a time. But soon a calf may begin to fall behind the racing herd, its endurance not quite up to that of the others. It is overtaken and eliminated. Natural selection has operated, a culling operation that over eons of time would seem to have evolutionary significance. Grizzly bears capture a few very young calves. Encouraged by their early-season success they continue chasing calves long after the calves have gained strength and speed enough to readily escape. After a few failures, I suspect that a grizzly learns that the calf-catching season has passed and is no longer tempted to gallop ponderously and fruitlessly with excess power but not sufficient fleetness to capture fleeing calves. MOOSE Alces alces gigas The northern conifer forest, stretching across the continent, is the home of the moose. In Alaska he has reached his greatest size. A mature bull weighs 12 to 15 hundred pounds, and his huge, palmate antlers have reached a record spread of about 80 inches. At a distance the moose appears to be black except for his long, light-colored stockings. The large head is supported on a short neck, a 16 shoulder hump is prominent, the nose is loose and bulbous. A special feature is the bell that hangs from the throat. The legs are inordinately long and the hoofs sharp. Moose may be discovered anywhere along the park road. They are frequently to be seen between Savage and Sanctuary rivers, and along Igloo Creek. In the Igloo Creek area three or four old bulls may generally be found spending the summer together, their daily movements usually covering about a half-mile or less. We speak of the moose as a forest animal, but it is often found the year round in willow brush beyond timber. It is not uncommon to see moose in the willows on the treeless passes such as Sable and Polychrome. The principal food of the moose is browse. In summer the leaves are stripped from the branches; at other seasons the twigs are eaten. Willows and dwarf birch are the chief browse species in the park. Aspens and cottonwoods are relished but are not plentiful enough to be very important. Alder is generally eaten only sparingly in winter. Farther south over the moose’s range, firs and hemlock are highly palatable in winter. The long legs enable the moose to reach high in his browsing. It is not unusual to find winter browsing sign 12 feet or more from the ground where the moose have stood on snow to feed. Tall willow brush and aspen saplings are often broken over in order to get at the twigs out of reach. The muzzle may be used for this, or the limb may be grasped in the mouth and pulled down. Many broken willows are evident on the bars along Igloo Creek. The long legs and short neck make grazing difficult. In Wyoming I once saw a cow and calf feeding on mushrooms, a delicacy. Reaching the ground was not easy—the calf dropped to his knees, and the cow was for part of the time down on one knee. In summer moose may be seen in lakes and ponds feeding on submerged vegetation. Where the water is deep the moose may disappear below the surface in his feeding. Bull moose in a snowstorm. 17 18 Yearling moose. Rutting activities begin by the first of September and continue into October. The antlers of the bulls have reached full size and hardened by the end of August, at which time the bulls begin to rub off the velvet, the skin that has covered the growing antlers. Saplings and brush are thrashed with great vigor, and this activity continues long after the antlers have been cleaned. Apparently it serves as one of the outlets for the strong rutting emotions. The bulls soon begin to spar and to determine who is boss over whom. And they begin to seek the cows. A successful bull usually has but a single cow, and he follows her closely as she moves about in her feeding. During the rut he utters at intervals a deep grunt. The cow, apparently when in an emotional state, utters a drawn-out wailing call. The one or two calves are generally born in late May or early June. They are reddish without spots. The mother must sometimes protect her calf from prowling grizzlies and this she generally seems fully capable of doing, judging from incidents in which the bear is chased away by an infuriated mother. A large male grizzly, however, is apparently not easily discouraged. By autumn the calves have made a surprising growth and have a new coat that resembles that of the adults. They remain with the mother until near the time for a new calf, when she no longer tolerates their presence. The moose is a wilderness animal, requiring for his haunts big country. The picturesque bull, silhouetted on a hill or on a lake shore, adds repose and serenity to the wilderness. DALL SHEEP Ovis dalli The Dall or white sheep is one of the outstanding wildlife features of the park. The north side of the greater part of the Alaska Range is excellent sheep habitat. Within the park the most extensive sheep country extends from the Nenana River to the Muldrow glacier, a distance of about 70 miles by road. Most of the sheep spend the winter north of the road. This is favorable winter range because the snowfall is relatively light and strong winds keep the exposed ridges free of snow. Many sheep remain on the winter range all year, but more of them migrate toward the heads of the rivers in May and June. In making the migration, the sheep must in places cross 2 or 3 miles of low country. They are fully aware of their vulnerability to grizzlies and wolves in these crossings. Before venturing away from a safe take-off ridge, they may scrutinize the low country for a day or two, until they feel that no danger lurks along the way. A band of 60 or 70 sheep may move across slowly in a rather compact group; at other times urgency replaces caution and they frequently break into a hurried gallop. Having reached the safety of rough country again, the sheep may gambol about as though the weight of tension has suddenly been lifted. The return migration is made in August and September. The large amber-colored horns of the rams with transverse ridges and sweeping outward curl have a rugged, graceful beauty. They may spread widely at the tips or curl rather close to the head. The ewes are less imposing. Their horns are slender spikes that extend upward in a slight curve, resembling those of the mountain goat but they lack the shiny jet black color and are not as sharp. The 19 horns are never shed and continue to grow throughout the sheep’s life span of 11 to 14 years. The growth is slight during the later years. Growth takes place during the summer when food is highly nutritious. In winter only a groove or ridge encircling the horn is formed. By counting these annual rings the age of a sheep can be determined. For detecting danger the sheep depend on their sharp eyes. They appear to disregard scent which for many animals is the final decisive word on any situation. But this seems quite logical, because the sheep generally have a strategic view, and in the varying air currents no dependence can be placed on getting scent messages. Noises are considered rather unimportant unless the sheep have already caught a glimpse of movement nearby. To approach sheep for photography it is usually best to move slowly toward them from below with no attempt to hide. They at once become suspicious if they glimpse someone stalking. However, I have at times stalked sheep where the opportunity for undetected close observation was obvious. On one occasion, from a ragged rocky ridge top, I spent most of an afternoon watching a band of rams some 50 yards away without being discovered. Some bands are wilder than others and the same band does not always behave uniformly. A band that has rested and is ready to move may take your approach as an excuse for a romp. The food of sheep consists of grasses, herbaceous species and browse, chiefly willow. Scattered over the range are a number of salt licks which the sheep seek for minerals. The most active mating period extends from about the middle of November to the middle of December. The rams who have been fraternizing on friendly terms for many months, now and then showing mating behavior such as gentle joustings, begin to take greater notice of the ewes. The old rams continue to associate, but now serious battling takes place. The fighting follows rather uniform conventional rules. The two matched battlers move apart several yards, then, as though by a signal, they turn and face each other and at the same time rise up on their hind legs, then charge full speed at each other, their horns crashing together with a loud thud. If the joust is even, they may repeat the performance until the superiority of one of the combatants is evident. But there is some tolerance among the rams, for two or more may breed with ewes in a band indiscriminately. The numbers of sheep on a range under natural conditions may vary considerably. In the park, a very high population, possibly as high as 5,000 or more, suffered severe losses during 1929 and again in 1932, due to extremely deep snow conditions, and an icy crust in the latter year. In 1945 the population was down to about 500. Since 1945 there has been a steady increase. The numbers in 1959 were up to about 2,000. Dall sheep; rams on the Alaska Range in summer.