MAMMALIAN PREDATOR DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE ON THE VIRGINIA BARRIER ISLANDS IN RELATION TO BREEDING HABITATS OF COLONIAL BIRDS by Oskars Keišs A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in Ecology Approved: ii ABSTRACT Mammalian Predator Abundance on the Virginia Barrier Islan ds in Relation to Breeding Habitats of Colonial Bird s by Oskars Keišs, Master of Scienc e Utah State University, 2000 Major Professor: Dr. Raymond D. Duese r Department: Fisheries and Wildlif e The predator distribution, abundance, and impact on colonial nesting birdosn the Virginia barrier islands (Virginia, USA) were studied by track surveys and l-ive trapping of raccoons (Procyon lotor). Six surveys on 23 islands were carried out between October 1998 and June 2000, and 57 raccoons were captured during 1062 trapnights on 8 islands and 2 mainland sites. Raccoons were found on 18 islands, American mink (Mustela vison) on 8, red fox (Vulpes vulpes) on 6, and northern river otter (Lutra canadensis) on 6. Birds avoided islands with raccoons and red foxes (Spearman rank correlation 1999: n = 13; r= –0.56; p = 0.05; 2000: n = 14; r = –0.79; s s p < 0.002). Raccoon relative abundance was best correlated (r = 0.99, p < 0.001) with the area of the salt marsh. Islands with raccoons had more shrubs and were higher in elevation than islands without. One possible management solution to protect birds on some smaller islands is the removal of predator s. (98 pages) iii To the memory of my friend Juris Ceihners (197–31998) iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project was 49% funded by the Virginia Caostal Resources Management Program of the Department of Environmental Quality through Grant #NA77OZ02-0041 of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, under the Coastal Zone Management Act of 129,7 as amended. The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of NOAA or any of its subagencies. Virginia Coast Reserve Long Term Ecological Research Program (VCR–LTER) at the University of Virginia provided boat–time and accommodations for researchers during the study. The Nature Conservancy (TNC) provided boa–ttime and accommodations on Hog Island. The Jack H. Berryman Institute and Utah State University (USU) provided field equipment for trapping and tracking animals. During the study the author was supported by the Fulbright Scholarship and research grant mentioned abov e. I am grateful to my committee: Michael Conover, Raymond Dueser, Eric Gese, and James MacMahon for comments on earlier drafts of the manuspctr.i I especially thank my major professor, Raymond Dueser, for introducing me to the Virginia barrier island ecosystem. Discussions and comments from Nancy Moncrief (Virginia Museum of Natural History) were encouraging in early stage of writing. Ruth Bec(kC ollege of William and Mary, Virginia) and Bill Williams (Virginia Ornithological Society) also provided valuable comments on the earlier drafts of the manuscrip t. Eli Fenichel, Randall Schultz, Jr., Erica Peterson, and I carried out most of the fieldwork. Working on the islands would not have been possible without the help of Barry Truitt (TNC), who shared his field experience on the islands and operated many v boat rides. Boats were operated also by Richard Ayers, Ricky Kellam and Marcus Killmon (TNC), and Randolph Carlson and James Spitler (VCR–LTER). Patrick Brannon (Virginia Museum of Natural History), Mads Thomsen (University of Virginia), Ruth Beck (College of William and Mary), Justin Crump (USU), Philip Smith (TNC), and Calvin Brennan (Fishermans Iasnld National Wildlife Refuge) also did some of the predator track surveys. Crews of 2t5h and 26th colonial waterbird surveys – Bill Akers, Michael Beck, Ruth Beck, Sue Rice, Jerry Via, and Bill Williams – allowed us to participate in the surveys and proviedd to me their unpublished data of colony and bird numbers on the islands as well as kindly shared observations of predators and their tracks during their bird surve y. Thomas DeLiberto trained me and Raymond Dueser in handling and immobilizing mammalian perdators at the Millville station of USU. John Porter, director of the VCR–LTER program, assisted with the sampling design and provided the C-CAPS satellite imagery . Janis Viksne and Aivars Mednis (University of Latvia) shared their experience on waterfowl management. Fellow graduate student Brian Silliman (University of Virginia and Brown University) provided valuable comments and personal observations on salt marsh invertebrate fauna. Janis Skujinš (USU) corrected my English from a Latvian perspective, before final corrections by my committee members. He and his wife, Irena Skujina, also helped me solve logistic problems during my studies in Logan, Utah. Finally, thanks to my family and all friends in Latvia for remembering me and giving me moral support while I was so far away from home . Oskars Keišs vi FOREWORD Birds inhabiting wetlands have experienced overhunting, habitat loss, and disturbance during breeding, migration, and wintering seasons. Mar-kheutnting, agriculture, and recreation have contribute dto this destruction, serving the unsatisfied appetite of humans. Introductions of exotic species and an increase in the numbers of ubiquitous species taking advantage of huma-anltered habitats have also contributed to the loss of biodiversity . The Atlantic Coast of North America has experienced larg-escale human disturbance. Hardly any undisturbed landscapes remain with the exception of the Virginia Coast Reserve of The Nature Conservancy. Still, ecosystems are connected, and even protected areas suffer form the consequences of huma-ncaused changes outside these reserves. We believe that raccoon populations have flourished as a result of an unlimited food supply in combination with reduced hunting by mod-edrany people. The increase in smal-l to medium-sized predator numbers have placed heavy pressure on wild bird populations in all of temperate North America. The management of predators on the Virginia barrier islands represents a major challenge to biodiversity protection in the modern world, where ecyosstems are heavily impacted by direct and indirect consequences of actions of a single, widespread, and opportunistic species– Homo sapiens. vii CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ii DEDICATION iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS… … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … … …... iv FOREWORD… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ….. vi LIST OF TABLES… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ….. viii LIST OF FIGURES… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …. x INTRODUCTION… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …... 1 Predators and Waterbirds… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … 1 Background… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …. 4 Objectives… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …... 8 Theoretical Hypotheses… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …... 8 MATERIAL AND METHODS...… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …... 10 Study Site… … … … ….… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …... 10 Predator Track Surveys on Islands… … … … … … … … … … … … … … …. 13 Trapping and Monitoring of Predators… … … … … … … … … … … … ….. . 14 Bird Surveys… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …... 21 Data Analyses… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …. 22 RESULTS… … … … … … … ….....… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …... 23 Track Surveys on Islands… … … … … … … … … ….… … … … … … … …... 23 Bird Survey..… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …... 28 Trapping and Monitoring of Predators… … … … … … … … … … … … ….. . 30 Predators and Waterbirds… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 38 DISCUSSION….… … … ….....… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ….….. 41 Predator Impact on Waterbirds… … … … … … … … … ….… … … … … ….. 41 Predator Distribution… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ….. 45 Predator Abundance and Island Characteristics… … … … … … … … … … . 47 Predator Movements and Island Colonization… … … … … … … … … … … 51 Management Implications… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ….. 53 REFERENCES….… … … ….....… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ….…. 57 APPENDIX… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …. 65 viii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Area (ha) of 4 cover categories, total length (km), isolation (km) and elevation (m) of 23 Virginia barrier and marshis lands… … … … … … ….… 10 2 Methods used to detect predator species presence and abundance on 23 Virginia barrier and marsh islands in 199–9 2000… …..… … … … … ….…. 15 3 Trapping effort for mammalian predators on 8 barrier islands and 2 mainland areas oft he Virginia Coast Reserve in 1999… … … … … … … …. .16 4 Trapping effort for mammalian predators by habitat on the Virginia Barrier Islands in 1999… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …... 18 5 Mammalian predator species detected in track surveys on 23 Virginia barrier and marsh islands, October 1998– June 2000 (including data from Jiménez, in litt. and Jiménez et al., in litt.)…...… … … … … … … … … … …. 24 6 Mammalian predator species detected in track surveys on 23 Virginia barrier and marsh islands, October 1998– June 2000… … … … … … … …... 25 7 Mean percent frequencies of raccoon tracks detected during systemat ic track surveys on 11 Virginia barrier islands, October 1998– June 2000 (including data from Jiménez, in litt. and Jiménez et al., in litt.)…..… … … 26 8 Mean percent frequencies of red fox tracks detected during systemat ic track surveys on 11 Virginia barrier islands, October 1998– June 2000 (including data from Jiménez, in litt. and Jiménez et al., in litt.)…..… … … 27 9 Ranks of islands by number fo nesting waterbirds relative to island area and occurrence of 2 mammalian predators in the summer of 1999… … …. .2.9 10 Ranks of islands by number of nesting waterbirds relative to island area and occurrence of 2 mammalian predators in the summer of0 200..… … …. 30 11 Raccoons captured on 8 barrier islands and 2 mainland areas of the Virginia Coast Reserve in 1999… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .31 12 Raccoons captured, radio-collared, or found dead on the Virginia Barrier Islands and mainland areas of th eVirginia Coast Reserve in 1999… … …... 33 13 Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient r (p value) between mean percent frequencies of raccoon tracks on Virginia barrier islands (n) and island parameters in 5 survey periods (including Parramores lIand)… … …. 36 ix 14 Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient r (p value) between mean percent frequencies of raccoon tracks on Virginia barrier islands (n) and island parameters in 5 survey periods (excluding Parramore Island)… … …36 15 Distances (m) moved by raccoons on Virginia barrier islands and mainland areas of the Virginia Coast Reserve Summer 199–9 S pring 2000… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 38 16 Observed predation events on birds during the 2th6 annual Colonial Waterbird survey June 18– 21, 2000 on Virginia barrier islands… … … …. 39 17 Raccoon and red fox distribution on the Virginia barrier islands between 1970 and 2000 (Dueser et al. 1979; Truit and Peterson, in litt.; J?imnez, in litt.; Jim?nez et al., in litt.; Raymond Dueser, pers. obs.; this study)… …... .46 A1 Predator track survey on 23 Virginia barrier and marsh islands in June 1999 – 2000… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 66 A2 Raccoons Procyon lotor sampled for DNA analyses on the Virginia Barrier Islands and mainland areas of theVirginia Coast Reserve in 1999 .8..0 A3 History of radio-tracking of adult raccoons on the 5 barrier islands and 2 mainland areas of the Virginia Coast Reserve in Fall 1999 and Spring 2000… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 83 A4 Maximum distances (m) between 2 locations of rad-icoollared raccoons on 5 barrier islands and 2 mainland areas of the Virginia Coast Reserve in Fall 1999 and Spring 2000… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .85 A5 Bird colonies on Virginia barrier islansd in 1999 (Williams, in litt.)….…... 87 A6 Bird colonies on Virginia barrier islands in 2000 (Williams, in litt.)….….. .88 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Changes in numbers of 3 bird species: snowy egreEt g(retta thula), gull- billed tern (Gelochelidon nilotica) and black skimmer (Rynchops niger) on Virginia barrier islands between 1975 and 1988 (Williams et al. 1990).… ….… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 5 2 Black skimmer (Rynchops niger) on Ship Shoal Island ,July 5, 1999 (photo by the author)… … … … … … … … … … …..… …..… … … … … ….…. 6 3 Delmarva Peninsula and Virginia barrier islands… … … … … … ….… … …. 11 4 North end of Hog Island (photo by the author)..…. … … … … … … … … …... 12 5 Shell piles on Wreck Island( photo by the author)… … … … … … … … … … 13 6 Live-trap set on Cushman’s landing trapping si(tpe hoto by the author).…. 17 7 Animals were handled with care to avoid potential infection of the handle r with rabies (photo by the author)…. … … … … … … … … …..… … ….… …... 20 8 Captured raccoon in a live-trap (photo by the author)… …..… … … … … …. 32 9 Correlation between trapping success data and island area data including Parramore (A, B, C) and without Parramore (A', B', C')… … … …..… … …. 35 10 Relative abundance of breeding colonial birds and raccoons on 13 Virginia barrier islands in the summers of 1999 and 2000……. … … … … … ….… … 40 11 Relationship between mean raccoon track frequency on 7 Virginia barrier islands and cumulative rain fall since 2 days before the survey date (measured at Hog Island station, Hog Island, VA). The 2 points with the highest amount of rainfall represent Cobb and Wreck islands and have th e highest ever measured track frequency on those islands… … … … … … …. .4.9 12 Dynamics of relative abundance o fraccoons P. lotor on 6 Virginia barrier islands between October 1998 and June 2000… … … … … … … ….… … ….. 50