Answers Research Journal 5 (2012):151–204. www.answersingenesis.org/contents/379/arj/v5/mammalian_Ark_kinds.pdf Mammalian Ark Kinds Jean K. Lightner, Independent Scholar. Abstract Based on the methods outlined in Determining the Ark Kinds (Lightner, Hennigan, Purdom, and Hodge 2011), information on the class Mammalia was evaluated in an attempt to get a realistic estimate of what mammalian kinds would have been represented on the Ark. Examining information on extant species (those alive today), it was estimated that they represent 137 created kinds. Given the number of extinct mammalian families known from the fossil record, the actual number on the Ark could easily have been well over 300. This estimate is very low compared with those in the past. In evaluating the information, a number of important creationist research questions have been discussed. As further research is undertaken to address these, our knowledge of created kinds will be significantly advanced. Keywords: Ark, baraminology, kinds, mammals Introduction To further complicate matters, many species Mammals belong to the taxonomic class Mammalia. classified as mammals are known only from the Nowak (1999) lists them in 28 orders that include 146 fossil record. It is impossible to identify in such families and over 4,800 species. They are distinctive specimens many of the important features that have in several traits. They possess mammary glands that historically defined mammals, as soft tissue is nearly enable the female to suckle her young. They possess always absent. Even the skeletal remains can be hair, though in cetaceans this is generally confined fragmentary, making their placement difficult and to early stages of development. Circulating red blood severely limiting our understanding of how they cells lack a nucleus. Additionally, the lower jaw is appeared in life (McKenna and Bell 1997). For this a single bone on each side that attaches directly to reason, fossil data will only be addressed to a limited the skull. Like birds, mammals are homeothermic degree in this paper. (warm-blooded) and have a four chambered heart Since hybrid information is so important to help with complete double circulation. identify biblical kinds, Mammalian Hybrids (Gray In school I was taught that taxonomy is a 1972) was used extensively. However, any hybrids scientific discipline that, among other things, gave she listed as “presumed” or “alleged” are generally each animal species in the world a unique binomial disregarded. Since her work is far from complete, name. Unlike common names which can vary from considerable effort was made to identify other hybrids region to region, scientific names were to remain in the literature. Where possible, papers summarizing constant so any scientist in any country could use findings were referenced, from which someone can the name and it would be easily recognized by trace the information back to its original source if they any other scientist anywhere else. Unfortunately, desire. Tables summarizing hybrid data are included taxonomy has fallen short of this ideal. It is not at the end of this paper in the appendices. uncommon to find species for which the genus name What follows is an initial attempt, using currently has changed over time and according to author. available information, to identify all the created kinds Many times subspecies are elevated to the rank of of mammals that would have been represented on the species; other times the reverse situation occurs. Ark. Since cetaceans (whales, dolphins, porpoises) Further, at higher levels taxonomy is in flux. and sirenians (dugong and manatees) spend their This is because, driven by the secular worldview, entire lives in the water, these two orders of mammals taxonomists are interested in classifying life are not considered. Previous creationist work is according to its supposed evolutionary history. Often helpful in some taxa. A discussion of the strategy similarity based on morphology doesn’t correlate for identifying kinds as well as relevant terminology with genetic similarity, causing some rather used in creationist work was outlined in a previous surprising associations (Nishihara, Hasagawa, and paper (Lightner et al. 2011). It is hoped that this Okada 2006). For the purpose of this analysis, the work will provide a strong basis for future creation taxonomic structure used in Wilson and Reeder’s research that will bring even greater clarity to our (2005) Mammal Species of the World is used. understanding of created kinds. ISSN: 1937-9056 Copyright © 2012 Answers in Genesis. All rights reserved. Consent is given to unlimited copying, downloading, quoting from, and distribution of this article for non-commercial, non-sale purposes only, provided the following conditions are met: the author of the article is clearly identified; Answers in Genesis is acknowledged as the copyright owner; Answers Research Journal and its website, www.answersresearchjournal.org, are acknowledged as the publication source; and the integrity of the work is not compromised in any way. For more information write to: Answers in Genesis, PO Box 510, Hebron, KY 41048, Attn: Editor, Answers Research Journal. The views expressed are those of the writer(s) and not necessarily those of the Answers Research Journal Editor or of Answers in Genesis. 152 J. K. Lightner Order Monotremata Monotremes are unusual mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth to live young. They have a number of other unusual features as well. The structure of the eye and the presence of certain bones in the skull resemble anatomic features of reptiles. Additionally, they have distinct coracoid bones and an interclavicle in their pectoral (shoulder) girdle, resembling that of reptiles. Some features of their ribs and vertebrae are also considered more reptile-like. Monotremes have three body systems, the digestive, urinary, and reproductive, that all end in a common chamber called the cloaca. This is the basis for the Fig. 2. Western long-beaked echidna. Source: Zoo name of this order, which literally means “one hole.” In Institutes http://zooinstitutes.com. the male, the penis is in the ventral wall of the cloaca and is divided at the tip into paired canals that are sides by barbless spines. They have broad feet with only for conveying sperm. In the female, each oviduct three to five strong, curved claws which they effectively opens separately into the cloaca. After fertilization in use for digging. They are divided into two genera: the oviduct, the egg is covered with albumin and a Tachyglossus is the short-nosed echidna; Zaglossus flexible, sticky, leathery shell before it is laid (Nowak is the long-nosed echidna. Some authors list multiple 1999). species, particularly in the latter genus. Though there Monotremes suckle their young after they is no hybrid data available, the whole family forms a hatch. Like marsupials, monotremes have eupubic strong cognitum. Tachyglossus is smaller, has longer (marsupium) bones associated with the pelvis. spines, and generally lays only one egg which it Monotremes maintain a lower body temperature incubates in the temporary pouch that forms at the than most mammals (30–32°C; 86–90°F). There appropriate time. In contrast, Zaglossus is larger with is evidence that they have electroreceptors in their shorter spines, and may incubate and suckle four to snout that aid in acquiring food (Nowak 1999; six young at a time in its temporary pouch. Pasitschniak-Arts and Marinelli 1998). Young Echidnas have been reported to become torpid monotremes have teeth, but they don’t cut through if food supply dwindles and, in some instances, may the gums and true functional teeth are not present hibernate through the winter (Nowak 1999). This in the adults of extant species. Adult males possess leaves open the possibility that the pair on the Ark may horny spurs on their ankles (Nowak 1999). have slept through much of the voyage, thus reducing their need for food. Interestingly, in those cases where Tachyglossidae (Echidna kind) hibernation has been documented, the females are Size: smaller adult around 40–45 cm long (nose ready to mate at the end of this period (Nowak 1999). to rump; male larger than female). Eats bugs and worms, likes to dig; might hibernate.1 Ornithorhynchidae (Platypus kind) Echidnas are also known as spiny anteaters. In Size: head and body 30 cm; tail 10 cm; male larger addition to their fur, they are covered on the back and than female. Caging requirements: Male has venomous spurs on hind feet; cage separate from other species. Fig. 1. Short-beaked echidna. Source: Encyclopedia of Fig. 3. Duck-billed platypus. Source: Wild Watch Life http://www.eol.org/. Australia http://www.wildwatch.com.au. 1 This is an estimate of the size for the individuals on the Ark using the range reported in the Nowak source. Mammalian Ark Kinds 153 The only extant member of this family is the duck- Order Didelphimorphia billed platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus. Its bill, Didelphidae (Opossum kind) though superficially similar to a duck’s, is covered Size: head and body 16–20 cm; tail 19–33 cm with soft, hairless skin. The body is streamlined as Opossums are marsupials that live in the Americas. in other semi-aquatic mammals (for example, otters Generally, they comprise a single family with two and beavers) and it has webbing on the feet. The tail subfamilies (Wilson and Reeder 2005), though it has is somewhat like a beaver’s, but is covered with fur; been suggested that they should be divided into four it is used in fat storage. The spurs on the hind feet distinct families (Nowak 2005a). The main difference of the males are connected with venom glands and noted between the two subfamilies involves specific can be used for defense if necessary (Nowak 1999; details of the ankle bones. Several other details differ Pasitschniak-Arts and Marinelli 1998). as well, but none that obviously affect the overall There are several fossil specimens that have been cognitum. placed in this family. They are quite fragmentary, Most opossums have a long, scaly, nearly naked but one is of particular interest. Obdurodon dicksoni prehensile tail. However, some forms have a shorter exhibits well developed functional teeth. In O. tail and/or one that is hairier. Hair is most likely to anatinus, teeth are only found in juveniles; flattened be abundant at the base of the tail and/or along its horny plates are present in adults and used in dorsal surface (Nowak 1999). mastication. This suggests that originally this kind It is interesting to note that the bushy-tailed may have had teeth, but this trait is largely lost in the Opossum (Glironia venusta) was at one time placed present day platypus. in one subfamily (Didelphinae). Later, based on some Some may question the need of putting a semi- dental and supposed basicranial similarities, it was aquatic creature on the Ark. Who really wants to bring placed, along with several other genera (Caluromys, a creature with venomous spurs on the Ark? Besides, Caluromysiops), in what is now a separate order extant platypuses aren’t exactly known for doing (Microbiotheriidae, which contains Dromiciops). particularly well in captivity (Pasitschniak-Arts and Later, the basicranial similarities were disputed Marinelli 1998). While a platypus may spend half its and the dental similarities were considered to be day in the water, it lives in a burrow. Times of resting from convergent evolution. Now the bushy-tailed on land appear essential to its well being. It seems Opossum is in the other subfamily (Caluromyinae) of unlikely that months of swimming in Flood waters Didelphidae (Marshall 1978). would be conducive to the survival of this created kind. Therefore we will assume it was on the Ark. Marsupials At one time marsupials were considered an order. However, currently extant marsupials are usually placed in seven different orders which include about 20 families. There are five more orders of marsupial or marsupial-like animals known only from the fossil record, which comprise 37 families (Nowak 2005a). Only orders that include at least one extant species will be considered here. Currently, there are still areas of marsupial taxonomy where considerable controversy exists. Although the kangaroo is probably the most familiar Fig 4. Common opossum. Source: Wikipedia http://www. marsupial, several orders of marsupials have a rodent- en.wikipedia.org. like to ferret-like appearance. In fact, even some marsupials in the same order as kangaroos exhibit a Order Paucituberculata very rodent-like face (for example, Potorous longipes, Caenolestidae (Shrew-opossum kind) long-footed Potoroo). This, along with the fact that Size: total body length female 17 cm; male 20 cm; marsupials are generally less familiar, makes it more tail about 40% of total length difficult to identify cognita in many cases. Further, only Though fossil evidence suggests this order was the family Macropodidae, which includes kangaroos once more widespread with seven recognized families, and wallabies, has significant hybrid data (Close and extant species are confined to a single family. These Lowry 1990). For these reasons the kinds identified marsupials are small and shrew-like in appearance here should be considered only a rough estimate and with a long conical head and small eyes. They have more research in this group is highly encouraged. a limited range in South America. This order is 154 J. K. Lightner diagnosed by some finer details of the molars and of the mountain), Dromiciops australis, which wrist bones, which do not significantly affect the lives in a limited range in South America. It is a overall cognitum. They lack a pouch, a trait shared good climber, rodent-like in appearance, and was by some opossums as well as some members of other previously classified in the family Didelphidae with marsupial orders (Nowak 2005a). other American opossums. It was reclassified into Shrew-opossums are considered here as a separate the otherwise extinct family Microbiotheriidae, kind for several reasons. Available pictures of extant which for a while was retained under the same order species can be distinguished from opossums by head (Didelphimorphia). Later work suggested this order shape and eye size. Since these features are variable was more closely related to Australian marsupials. within many of the rodent-like marsupials, these Based on limb bone analysis, one researcher placed criteria could reasonably be challenged. A second them as a suborder next to Dasyuromorphia, which reason is that combining them would involve combining includes some rodent-like Australian marsupials. two groups that currently occupy the status of order Another argued that they are separate from all (though previously they had been placed below this). other marsupials. They are unique among extant To avoid underestimating Ark kinds, it was decided marsupials in that they have a basicaudal cloaca like to list the shrew-opossum as a separate kind. monotremes and several cranial/dental traits found The Chilean shrew opossum (Rhyncholestes in some placental mammals (Nowak 2005a). raphanurus) differs from others in this family in that El monito del monte also stores fat in the basal it seasonally stores fat in its tail. This trait appears portion of its tail in preparation for hibernation. It is in some species from other marsupial orders and is known to be able to double its body weight in a week associated in several small mammals with extended in this way. It has also been observed to enter periods torpor (Patterson and Gallardo 1987). It is interesting of torpor on a daily basis, even when food is readily to note that the Flood began on the seventeenth day available (Nowak 2005a). As previously mentioned, of the second month (Genesis 7:11), which would these traits could have been useful on the Ark as this correspond to about the beginning of November.2 If we decreased metabolic activity would have reduced the assume that seasons prior to the Flood were similar to required food intake and likely reduced the stress on those today (Genesis 1:14-15; 8:21–22), then animals the animal during its year on the Ark. prone to hibernate in the Northern Hemisphere could have easily built up the body reserves for this prior to entering the Ark. Further, some animals are able to enter shorter periods of torpor which is not necessarily related to winter hibernation. Such abilities would not only reduce their food requirement, it would likely reduce the stress of the voyage on them significantly. Fig. 6. El Monito del Monte opossum. Source: Learn Animals http:/www.learnanimals.com. Order Notoryctemorphia Fig. 5. Shrew-opossum. Source: Mammalsrus http:// Notoryctemorphia (Marsupial mole kind) www.mammalsrus.com. Size: head and body 9+ cm; tail (short cylindrical, Order Microbiotheria stumpy, hard, leathery, terminates in horny knob) Microbiotheriidae (Little-monkey opossum kind) 1.2 cm Size: total length 19.5 cm; head and body 8.5+ cm; The marsupial mole consists of one extant species, tail 9+ cm Notoryctes typhiops. Its appearance is different from This family is represented by a single living other marsupials, but it bears a striking resemblance species known as monito del monte (little monkey to golden moles (Afrosoricida; Chrysochloridae) in 2 Originally, Tishri was the first month of the year. It was at the time of the Exodus, many years after the Flood, that the first month changed to the spring month of Abib (Nisan), (Exodus 12:1). Mammalian Ark Kinds 155 overall morphology, burrowing habits, fur textures, mole was not on the list of hits for the golden mole and external features of the brain. Not only is its sequences. These results do not support the conjecture appearance unique compared to other marsupials, that marsupial moles and golden moles are members but studies involving serology, karyotype, and DNA of the same created kind. data have failed to show significant similarity with other marsupials (Nowak 2005a). Order Dasyuromorphia Since there are a number of marsupials that bear The members of this order had been placed in a an uncanny resemblance to placental animals, some single family, Dasyuridae, until around 1960. Since have suggested that perhaps they belong to the same then, several species have been placed in separate kind as their placental counterparts. If this were so, families within this order. The many species that these mammals would have been created with the remain in Dasyuridae are mostly rodent-like, bearing ability to switch between two modes of reproduction. a strong superficial resemblance to the American This would be analogous to some reptiles that can marsupials of Didelphimorphia. However, they differ vary between egg laying and live birth (Adams et al. in the number of upper and lower incisors. Members 2007; Arrayago, Bea, and Heulin 1996). of Dasyuromorphia also lack a cecum and never have a prehensile tail (Nowak 2005a). Thylacinidae Thylacinus cynocephalus (Tasmanian wolf kind) Size: head and body length 85 cm; tail 38 cm; shoulder height 35 cm. The Tasmanian wolf, Thylacinus cynocephalus, is the most unique appearing member of its order, bearing a striking superficial resemblance to a dog. However, its mtDNA is similar to other marsupials, especially those in Dasyuromorphia, but is not similar to the mtDNA of any canids. Analysis of its skeletal proportions indicates that it is very much like a large dasyurid. It does not have specialized pursuit Fig. 7. Marsupial mole. Source: Alice Springs Desert adaptations like those found in wolves (Nowak 2005a). Park http://www.alicespringsdesertpark.com.au. This single species, which became extinct in the last Similar to placentals, marsupials have an century, naturally falls into a class by itself using the early forming yolk sac placenta through which cognitum. nourishment is absorbed from the mother’s uterus. In some marsupials (Phascolarctidae; Vombatidae; Peremelemorphia) a second chorioallantoic placenta forms and allows more intimate exchange between mother and developing embryo (Nowak 2005a). These factors would seem to suggest that switching mode of reproduction might be possible in mammals. To evaluate this possibility further, a Blastn test was preformed on the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence for this species3 and two species of golden moles (Chrysochloris asiatica4 and Eremitalpa granti5) whose mtDNA sequences are found in the NCBI nucleotide database. The mtDNA of other marsupials showed the highest percent identity to the marsupial mole sequence; the sequences to the golden moles were not listed among the hits. When the golden mole sequences were queried, the other golden mole sequences were at the top of the list, followed Fig. 8. The Tasmanian wolf. Source: Jumpgate http:// by sequences from the pig (Sus scrofa); the marsupial www.jump-gate.com. 3 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/NC_006522.1 4 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/NC_004920.1 and http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/AJ428944.1 5 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/NC_010304.1 and http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/AM904729.1 The blastn test was run on each sequence individually using default parameters. 156 J. K. Lightner Myrmecobiidae (Banded anteater kind) the most extreme documented example is in the Size: body length 17.5 cm; tail length 13 cm. South American marsh rat, Holochilus brasiliensis, The banded anteater (Myrmecobius fasciatus), also where 26 distinct karyotypes were observed in the known as the numbat, is unique among marsupials 42 animals tested (Nachman and Myers 1989). in that it is diurnal and uses its long tongue to eat So clearly animals with differing karyotypes can termites. It was once classed as a subfamily within belong to the same created kind. On the other hand, Dasyuridae. Apartfrom itscolor pattern, it seems what are we to make of similar karyotypes? Within to fit in the same cognitum as other dasyurids. Its different marsupial orders are individuals with karyotype (2n = 14) is similar, but this same pattern a very similar karyotype (2n = 14). Many of these is seen in other marsupial orders as well. It is animals have a rodent-like morphology, making it distinctive from dasyurids in its serology, though to a a challenge to see clear divisions when looking at degree more commonly found at the subfamily level. the live animal without supporting laboratory data. Major reasons for placing it in a separate family are Might this be a hint that the level of the kind may be distinctive dental and basicranial features (Archer higher and include several orders of marsupials? At and Kirsch 1977). They are considered a separate the same time, there is no biblical reason why God kind here because they do have some distinctive could not have created several marsupial kinds with features and we have chosen to prefer splitting to essentially identical karyotypes. This highlights the lumping, especially above the family level. need for considerable creationist research to address There are several things worth noting here. First, these types of questions. Archer and Kirsch (1977) attribute much of the increase in marsupial families to the fact that the marsupial Dasyuridae (Marsupial mouse kind) designation is now above the level of the order. This Size: body length 12 cm; tail length ~12 cm. has provided more “room” and many subfamilies have Dasyuridae is divided into two subfamilies, each been promoted to the family level. Second, they note of which is composed of two tribes. There are a total that changes in morphology, serology, and karyology of 69 species placed in 20 genera within this family often don’t keep pace with each other. So, while the (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Many look similar to mice, banded anteater has a karyotype like dasyurids, and though the quolls (Dasyurus species) tend to be larger the serology only differed as would be expected on the with some having a body shape similar to that of the subfamily level, the separate family placement was banded anteater. From an appearance standpoint, the based on some unique characteristics of the molars most unique member of this family is the Tasmanian and basicranium. devil, Sarcophilus harrisii. The head and body of this creature look like that of a small bear (Nowak 2005a). It would be tempting to split the Tasmanian devil out on the basis of the cognitum, but taxonomically it fits well in the tribe Dasyurini, along with the quolls and several other genera (Wilson and Reeder 2005). For Fig. 9. Banded anteater. Source: Red Orbit http://www. redorbit.com. Creationists can also find it challenging to interpret differences in morphology, serology, and karyology. For example, even if we assume that each created kind originally had a uniform karyotype, there is not a uniform karyotype within all created kinds today. Animals can have similar or identical morphology, even belonging to the same species, and Fig. 10. Spotted tail quoll. Source: Australian Geographic have different karyotypes (Lightner 2006a). Perhaps http://www.australiangeographic.com.au. Mammalian Ark Kinds 157 it for grooming. This is also a feature of Diprotodontia, and previously animals in this order were placed at a lower rank in an order beside those of Diprotodontia. However, the teeth of bandicoots are polyprotodont, having more than one pair of lower incisors, much like members of Dasyuromorphia. For this reason, these animals were placed in their own order. Bandicoots are interesting in that they form a chorioallantoic placenta in addition to the yolk sac placenta. The only other marsupials known to form this type of placenta are koalas and wombats, both from the order Diprotodontia. However, these placentas are not as well developed as in placental mammals as marsupials have a comparatively short gestation time (Nowak 2005a). Fig 11. Marsupial mouse. Source: Australian Animal Learning Zone http://www.australiananimallearningz one.com. this reason, the kind is considered to be at the level of the family. Here again there are important questions that can be raised. Taxonomists have reason to believe the Tasmanian devil is closely related to the quolls, despite its bulkier body build. Are the unusual features of the Tasmanian devil from variation within a kind? It has been assumed so here since other members of the same tribe (Dasyurini) look similar to members of the other tribe (Phascogalini) within this family. When Fig. 12. Long-nosed bandicoot. Source: Australian Wildlife http://www.australianwildlife.org. two taxonomic categories are bridged, all members of both categories are assumed to be in the same kind. This mix of characteristics can be interpreted On the other hand, what differences distinguish one several ways in the Creation model. It could be created kind from another? Since Scripture never interpreted as indicating that the level of the kind is tells us specifically, we are left to conjecture in most above the level of the order for at least some of the cases. marsupials. Since many marsupials are rodent-like Some progress has been made on these questions and the average student of nature probably would not by examining variation in kinds identified by hybrid be able to, by looking at pictures, place them in separate data. We know that domestic dogs vary tremendously groups that match their current taxonomic position; in size, color, and muzzle shape. Wild animals vary this possibility is worthy of further investigation. It in size and color as well. What types of cranial and should be pointed out, however, that this would place dental variation are found in created kinds? Are the Tasmanian wolf in with some very rodent-like there certain features that are distinct and tend to animals. In contrast, it could be taken as evidence that not change? Do some changes within created kinds these animals were created separately with a mix of result in certain members that look a bit like other features so they would clearly be distinct from other kinds? Considerably more research is necessary to groups. Since bandicoots do have some distinctive better answer these questions. In marsupials, the features, including a long pointed muzzle and hind family Macropodidae has documented intergeneric limbs longer than forelimbs, they will be considered hybrids. This should provide an excellent place to here to be a separate kind. start assessing morphologic, serologic, and genetic There has been considerable disagreement variation within marsupials linked by hybrid data. over how the 18 species in this order should be grouped into families (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Order Peramelemorphia (Bandicoot kind) Aplin, Helgen, and Lunde (2010) give a relatively Size: head and body 20 cm; tail 7–10 cm. detailed account of this history. In 1990, based In bandicoots the second and third digits are on morphologic details, it was proposed that syndactylous, bound together by skin so only the two families are appropriate: Peroryctidae and tops of the joints and nails are separate. It works Peramelidae. Some genetic and serologic studies somewhat like a single digit and the animals will use that followed supported this. Later studies resulted 158 J. K. Lightner in placing the members of Peroryctidae as a distinct Vombatidae (Wombat kind) subfamily within Peramelidae. Also, two genera Size: head and body 70 cm; tail 2.5 cm were removed from Peramelidae to form the families There are three species of wombats which are placed Thylacomyidae (Macrotis spp.) and Chaeropodidae in two genera. Like the koala, they lack the long obvious (for recently extinct Chaeropus). Aplin, Helgen, and tail characteristic of most diprotodonts. They have a Lunde (2010) point out that future studies to resolve stocky bear-like body. Their teeth are similar to those these taxonomic issues should include, among other of rodents in that they are rootless and ever growing. things, a more complete consideration of extant They also chew with rapid side-to-side movements like species. Because of the controversy over family rodents. Since they have these unique features they status and the cognitum being unhelpful in dividing are considered a separate created kind here. this order, the level of the kind was placed at the level of the order. Order Diprotodontia The name for this order comes from a dental characteristic of its members, namely two large lower incisors that point forward. Usually there are no other incisors or canine teeth in the lower jaw, but if they appear they are small. This leaves a gap between the incisors and cheek teeth. As mentioned previously, they are syndactylous as are members of Peramelemorphia (Nowak 2005a). It is the largest of the marsupial orders with 143 recognized species in 39 families (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Fig. 14. Southern hairy-nosed wombat. Source: Go Australia http://www.goaustralia.about.com. Phascolarctidae (Koala kind) Size: head and body 60 cm. Burramyidae (Pygmy possum kind) The koala, Phascolarctos cinereus, was once placed At one time the members of Burramyidae were in the family Phalangeridae with the Australian included in the family Phalangeridae (Nowak possums and cuscuses. It has since been moved 2005a). Based on serology, Burramyidae was placed into its own family and is now believed to be more as a separate family (Kirsch 1977). In that study, closely related to wombats. Although there is only the genus Acrobates grouped within Burramyidae, one species, it is distinctive enough to be easily but subsequent study has placed it in a separate recognized by most people and will be considered a family, Acrobatidae (Nowak 2005a). Acrobatidae created kind here. is in a separate superfamily (Petauroidea) from Burramyidae and Phalangeridae (Phalangerodea; Wilson and Reeder 2005). Fig. 15. Mountain pygmy possum. Source: Australian Government, Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities Fig. 13. Koala. Wikipedia http://www.en.wikipedia.org. http://www.environment.gov.au. Mammalian Ark Kinds 159 Despite these shifts, the current family and Acrobatidae are in a separate superfamily arrangement appears fairly well accepted. There (Petauroidea) in the same suborder (Phalangeriformes; certainly is not the degree of upheaval at the family level Nowak 2005a; Wilson and Reeder 2005). seen in bandicoots (order Peramelemorphia). There is, Currently six genera remain in Phalangeridae. however, still considerable disagreement in how the Taxonomists have recognized diagnostic features current families are related to each other (Meredith, for this family, including several dental and several Westerman, and Springer 2009; Munemasa et al. cranial features (Nowak 2005a). Most are not features 2006). One possible reason for this ambiguity is that that would be readily noticed by the average student the families are not related. However, the frequent of nature. Documented hybridization has occurred use of possum in the common name for species in between Trichosurus arnhemensis and T. vulpecula, many of these families betrays the fact that there is two of the more common species in the family (Close a natural cognitum above the family level. Here the and Lowry 1990; Wilson and Reeder 2005). Since kind is tentatively placed at the family level to avoid this is not an intergeneric hybrid, it is not listed in underestimating the number of kinds on the Ark, but the hybrid tables. these issues should be looked at in more detail. The small, mouse-like members of this family are nocturnal. Many inhabit trees, most have been observed to undergo torpor for variable lengths of time, and at least one, Cercartetus nana, undergoes full hibernation in the winter after storing considerable body fat, especially in the base of its tail (Nowak 2005a). It is interesting to note that studies on Cercartetus nana, the Eastern pygmy possum, have shown that torpor can be observed independent of season, time of day, and ambient temperature. Its body temperature drops to several degrees above ambient temperature. The duration of this period of torpor tended to increase with Fig. 17. Brushtail possum. Source: Department of a drop in ambient temperature. In one experiment, a Environment and Heritage Protection http://www.ehp. record 367 day hibernation period was recorded. The qld.gov.au. animal used 1/40th the energy normally used while Pseudocheiridae (Ring-tailed/Greater gliding awake (Harris 2008). This is not meant to imply that possum kind) all marsupials slept through the entire voyage on the Size: head and body 32 cm; tail ~33–36 cm Ark, but some period of torpor seems reasonably likely When the members of this family were first for a number of these animals. removed from Phalangeridae, they were placed at the subfamily level in Petauridae. Based on later studies they were elevated to the family status (Nowak 2005a). There are 17 species which are placed in six genera (Wilson and Reeder 2005). All species are arboreal, and one genus contains a single species (Petauroides volans) which has the ability to glide. The patagium, or fold of skin used for gliding, extends from the elbow to the leg. In contrast to flying squirrels and the lesser gliding possum, the greater gliding possum glides with its elbows pointed outward and forearms pointed inward (Nowak 2005a). Fig. 16. Eastern pygmy possum. Source: Burke Museum http://www.collections.burkemuseum.org. Phalangeridae (Possum kind) Size: head and body 42 cm; tail ~38–40 cm At one time this family included members of what are now considered separate families. The koala (Phascolarctidae) has been moved to a different suborder (Vombatiformes) beside the wombat. As mentioned, Burramyidae is now a separate family in the same superfamily (Phalangerodea). Members Fig. 18. Greater gliding possum. Source: F.A.U.N.A. of Pseudocheriridae, Petauridae, Tarsipedidae, http://www.fauna.com.au. 116600 J. K. Lightner Petauridae (Gliding and striped possum kind) Acrobatidae (Feather-tailed possum kind) Size: head and body 22 cm; tail ~25–31 cm Size: head and body 9 cm; tail ~10–11 cm Currently this family consists of 11 species placed in This family consists of two species placed in three genera. As with the previous family, all species separate genera, Distoechurus and Acrobates. At one are arboreal. One genus (Petaurus) has six species of time these species were placed in Phalangeridae, but lesser gliding possums (Nowak 2005a; Wilson and based on serologic evidence they were removed with Reeder 2005). The patagium extends from the outside the family Burramyidae. Later they were considered of the forearm to the ankle. As in the flying squirrel to have affinity with Petauridae, but more recent (Glaucomys), gliding is done with all limbs extended serologic and morphologic studies suggest they have (Nowak 2005a). A hybrid has been documented more similarity to Tarsipedidae (Nowak 2005a). between Petaurus breviceps and P. norfolcensis (Close and Lowry 1990). Since this is not an intergeneric hybrid, it is not listed in the hybrid tables. Fig. 21. Feathertail glider. Source: F.A.U.N.A. http://www.fauna.com.au. Hypsiprymnodontidae (Musky rat-kangaroo kind) Size: head and body 21 cm; tail ~13 cm The last three marsupial families are in the Fig. 19. Sugarglider. Source: Burke Museum http:// suborder Macropodiformes. The name means “big collections.burkemuseum.org. feet” which refers to the elongated hind foot. There Tarsipedidae (Honey possum kind) is a strong cognitum at this level because of this Size: head and body 7 cm; tail ~7.5–8.5 cm trait. In addition to being evident in pictures of The honey possum, Tarsipes rostratus, is the only these animals, it is reflected in the name kangaroo known member of this family. It is unique among which appears as rat-kangaroo for these first two the small, mouse-like Australian marsupials in its families, reflecting the smaller size of their members. coloration and long snout. It uses its long tongue to It would seem far more natural to place the level of feed on nectar and pollen from flowers. At one time the kind here, but I have resisted doing so for several it too was placed in the family Phalangeridae, but reasons. First, it is at the suborder level, which difference in morphology and serology were grounds is already fairly high. This first family is the most for removing it. Other such studies identified some unique and also bears some resemblance to other similarities between it and members of Acrobatidae rodent-like marsupials when noticing features such (Nowak 2005a). as head shape and overall body proportions. Further, these animals are less familiar to me which would increase the likelihood of me lumping them together inappropriately. For this project, we agreed to prefer splitting to lumping, especially above the family level, to avoid underestimating the Ark kinds. The musky rat-kangaroo (Hypsiprymnodon moschatus), the only extant member of this family, is the smallest of the rat-kangaroos and differs from others in this suborder in that it retains the first digit of the hind foot, which is well developed, and its tail is naked and scaly. Its limbs are more equally proportioned than those of other rat-kangaroos (Nowak 2005a). It was separated taxonomically from the other Fig. 20. Honey possum. Source: It’s Nature http://www. rat-kangaroos, initially at the subfamily level, based itsnature.org. on having a simple stomach and blade-like premolars