Making Sense of Messages Making Sense of Messages, now in its second edition, retains the apprenticeship approach which facilitates effectivelylearning the complex content and skillsofrhetorical theory and criticism. A new chapter on “The Rhetoric of Ignorance” provides needed theory and examples that help students deal with the new rhetorical landscape marked by such discursive complexities as “fake news,” “whataboutism,” and denial of science that creates rather than reduces uncertainty in public argument. A new chapter, “Curating and Analyzing Multimodal Mediated Rhetoric,” deals with problems of media criticism in the digital age. It provides theory, models of application, and commentary that help novice critics under- stand and mindfully practice criticism that leads to insight, not mere opinion. Throughout the book, extended and updated examples and commentaries are designed to promote “novice-to-expert” agency in students. This textbook is ideal for introductory courses in contemporary rhetoric, rhetorical criticism, and critical analysis of mass media. Mark Stoner is Professor Emeritus of Communication Studies at California State University, Sacramento. Making Sense of Messages A Critical Apprenticeship in Rhetorical Criticism Second edition Mark Stoner Secondeditionpublished2020 byRoutledge 52VanderbiltAvenue,NewYork,NY10017 andbyRoutledge 2ParkSquare,MiltonPark,Abingdon,Oxon,OX144RN RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness ©2020Taylor&Francis TherightofMarkStonertobeidentifiedasauthorofthisworkhasbeenassertedbyhim inaccordancewithSections77and78oftheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988. Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereprintedorreproducedorutilisedinany formorbyanyelectronic,mechanical,orothermeans,nowknownorhereafterinvented, includingphotocopyingandrecording,orinanyinformationstorageorretrievalsystem, withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublishers. Trademarknotice:Productorcorporatenamesmaybetrademarksorregisteredtrademarks, andareusedonlyforidentificationandexplanationwithoutintenttoinfringe. FirsteditionpublishedbyPearson2005 LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Acatalogrecordhasbeenrequestedforthisbook ISBN:978-0-8153-5538-0(hbk) ISBN:978-0-8153-5540-3(pbk) ISBN:978-1-351-13012-7(ebk) TypesetinBembo bySwales&Willis,Exeter,Devon,UK Contents Preface xiv Acknowledgments xvi PART1 Introduction 1 1 WhatAreRhetoricalMessages? 3 Vocabulary 3 CharacteristicsofRhetoric 3 RhetoricTypicallyAddressesPublicAudiences 4 RhetoricIsPurposeful 4 RhetoricRespondstoorCreatesSocialConcerns 5 RhetoricIsBuiltfromVerbalandNonverbalSymbols 6 RhetoricShapestheWayPeopleThink,Act,Believe,andFeel 6 DefinitionofRhetoric 7 RhetoricalTerminology 8 WhyStudyRhetoricalMessages? 8 Summary 9 Exercises 10 Notes 11 WorksCited 11 2 Criticism:WhatCriticsDowithRhetoricalMessages 12 Vocabulary 12 ReactionversusCritique 12 CharacteristicsofCritics 13 CriticsStudyMessagesSystematically 13 CriticsHaveaResponsibilitytoTeachOthers 14 ACriticalStance:IntheBalcony 14 HowThisBookCanHelp 18 vi Contents MessageAnalysisMatters! 19 Summary 19 Exercises 20 Notes 21 WorksCited 21 PART2 ProcesstoProduct 23 3 FourKindsofCriticalThinking 25 Vocabulary 25 CreativeandCriticalThinking 26 TheProcessofCriticalAnalysisofMessages 28 Description 29 Analysis 31 Interpretation 35 Evaluation 37 Summary 38 Exercises 39 Notes 42 WorksCited 42 4 TheProcessofDescription 43 Vocabulary 43 ApproachestoDescribingaText 44 PlannedSurvey 45 AskingQuestions 46 RecordingYourThinking 46 ApproachestoDescribingContext 48 SpecificCircumstances 50 SimilarCircumstancesorSimilarMessages 50 RhetorandAudience 51 Text–ContextInteraction 53 Conformity 53 Non-Participation 53 Desecration 54 ContextualReconstruction 56 ApplicationofText–ContextInteractions 57 Summary 58 Exercises 58 Note 60 WorksCited 60 Contents vii 5 TheProcessofAnalysis 61 Vocabulary 61 NamingthePartsoftheMessage 62 UsingSearchModels 62 UsingGeneralKnowledge 63 RecordingYourThinking 64 LookingforRhetoricalPatterns 69 PatternsofRepetition 69 PatternsofSequencing 70 PatternsofOmission 70 AnomaliestoPatterns 70 PatternsofRelationships 71 DerivingInterpretiveQuestionsfromtheAnalysis 73 Summary 74 Exercises 74 Note 76 WorksCited 76 6 TheProcessofInterpretation 77 Vocabulary 77 ThreeApproachestoInterpretation 78 CreativeThinking 78 SubjectiveThinking 78 InferentialThinking 79 HowDoesaCriticDevelopanInterpretation? 80 AskingQuestionsfromAnalysisFindings 80 ComparingObservationsfromAnalysis 83 Summary 87 Exercises 87 Notes 89 WorksCited 90 7 TheProcessofEvaluation 91 Vocabulary 91 TypesofJudgments 93 Truthfulness 93 QualityofEvidenceandReasoning 95 Effectiveness 96 EthicsandValues 97 SelectingaTypeofJudgment 98 SampleEvaluation 98 viii Contents Summary 100 Exercises 101 Note 102 WorksCited 102 8 WritingYourIdeas 103 Vocabulary 103 EffectivelyArguingYourClaimsaboutMessages 104 PresentNewIdeas:“AnInferentialLeap” 105 MakeanArgument:“APerceivedRationale” 105 SupportYourClaim:(“RegulateUncertainty”) 107 LogicallyOrganizeIdeas:(“RiskaConfrontation”) 107 Research,Organize,andWriteWell 109 DocumentingYourSources 110 ChicagoStyle 111 MLAStyle 111 APAStyle 111 GoodWritingIsBasedonGoodSentences 112 Summary 113 Exercises 113 Notes 114 WorksCited 115 PART3 AnalyticalTools 117 PrefacetoChapters9–10:ClassicalApproaches 119 9 AncientRhetoric 121 Vocabulary 121 SomeClassicalRhetoricalConcepts 122 Style 125 Arrangement 128 Delivery 131 Memory 131 Invention 131 TheClassicalModelApplied 136 BarackObama’s“MorePerfectUnionSpeech”:ReconstructingApology 137 Summary 142 Exercises 143 WorksCited 144 SuggestedReadings 145 Contents ix 10 NewRhetoric 146 Vocabulary 146 ToulminandEverydayArgument 147 ArgumentFields 147 Field-InvariantandField-DependentElementsofArguments 148 ModalTerms 148 ForceandCriteria 149 ThePartsofArguments 150 PerelmanandtheNewRhetoric 153 ReasonablenessandAudiences 153 TheUniversalAudience 154 MeansofFormingGoodOpinions 155 CreatingPresence 156 UsingArgumentStructures 157 TheNewRhetoricApplied 158 (More)Analysis 158 (Further)Interpretation 161 Summary 161 Exercises 162 Notes 163 WorksCited 163 SuggestedReadings 163 PrefacetoChapters11–13:DramatisticApproaches 165 11 TheNarrativeParadigm 167 Vocabulary 167 SomeTerminologyoftheNarrativeParadigm 168 NarrativeElements 168 TwoConcepts—FourConcerns 171 NarrativeProbability 172 NarrativeFidelity 172 NarrativeParadigmApplied 173 GettysburgAddress 174 NarrativeApproachAppliedtoSmackdown! 176 Summary 179 Exercises 180 Notes 181 WorksCited 181 SuggestedReadings 181