Copyright Roshan James Abraham 2009 iii To Erica, whose patience, support, and love has made everything possible iv Acknowledgements In my first year of graduate school, I was told by a friend finishing her dissertation that "writing a dissertation is like eating an elephant. You have to take it one bite at a time." Her quip proved all too true, and there are several people I have to thank for making the digestion (and occasional bouts of indigestion!) possible. A first thanks goes to my committee: Peter Struck, Jeremy Mclnerney, James Ker, and Cam Grey, whose friendship and advising will stay with me as I continue in my career. Jaap-Jan Flinterman also provided useful comments on chapter three. I could have never expected the serendipidous arrival of Annette Reed and Benjamin Flemming in the Religious Studies department. Over the last couple of years, they have been a constant influence in my scholarly development (Campany and Smith!) and have become true friends. I am also grateful for the supportive community of colleagues, particularly Amy Coles, Jeremy Leftkowitz, Kat Milne, and Erin Moodie. I've found at Penn. Special thanks go to Sarah Wahlberg and Narda Quigley, who have seen me through so many hardships and triumphs. And of course, Daniel Harris-McCoy, with whom I have made so many memories and developed what is certain to be a life-long friendship. My family has seen me through this entire process, including my parents, Abraham Omman and Mary Abraham, my sister, Liz Abraham, and her husband, Tim Essam. I am also grateful to the entire Schockett family for welcoming me with open arms and celebrating my successes. And most of all, to Erica Schockett, the best gift Philadelphia has given me, who has seen me through every page of this work, and to whom this dissertation is dedicated with my deepest love. V ABSTRACT MAGIC AND RELIGIOUS AUTHORITY IN PHILOSTRATUS' LIFE OF APOLLONIUS OF TYANA Roshan J. Abraham Supervisor: Peter T. Struck This dissertation examines Flavius Philostratus' Life ofApollonius ofTyana, an eight- book biography written in the early third century CE about a Cappadocian sage who lived in the first century. Prior to Philostratus' biography, Apollonius had a reputation of being a magician. Philostratus isolates two explicit reasons for Apollonius negative reputation: his association with eastern sages, particularly Indian Brahmans, and his gift of foreknowledge. I examine how Philostratus defends Apollonius by (1) representing India as a Hellenistic utopia, a land of pure Greek identity, uncomplicated by the realities of the Roman Empire, and (2) creating a theory ofApollonius' foreknowledge (prognosis) rooted in contemporary Middle Platonic physical and ethical philosophy. I conclude that the implicit reason for the accusation of being a magician made against Apollonius stems from the threat he presents to traditional political and religious authority. In my analysis, Philostratus' Apollonius represents both the contours of Greek identity under the Roman Empire and the rise of the pagan holy man. VI TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction CHAPTER 1. Philostratus and the Traditions on Apollonius 12 CHAPTER 2 "Where Wisdom Leads Me' Apollonius in India 34 CHAPTER 3 What Wisdom Reveals: Apollonius and Foreknowledge 82 CHAPTER 4 Apollonius on Trial 131 Conclusion 148 Appendix I Indian Sages in Greek Thought 149 Bibliography 167 1 Introduction Apollonius of Tyana is not as well-known a name today as it was in antiquity. Even among scholars who study Apollonius, little can be said about the historical Apollonius. He was Greek Pythagorean from Cappadocia (modern-day Turkey), lived in the first century CE, and was likely a traveling sage and sophist, akin to those represented in Philostratus' Lives of the Sophists. However, Apollonius became a major, if not the major, pagan counterpoint to Christ in Late Antiquity. The reception, construction, and subsequent reconstructions of his life over the several centuries following his death provides us an important view into the contours of Greek identity in the so-called "Second Sophistic," the role of ethnography in the construction of this identity, the rise of the pagan holy man, and the relationship between magic and religion. Two scenes from Late Antiquity illustrate the changing reception of Apollonius. The first comes the late fourth century CE in The Life of the Deified Aurelian from the Historia Augusta. When Aurelian rose to the purple in 270 CE, his first order of business was to reunite the Italian provinces of the empire, after which he safeguarded Rome with the building of the Aurelian Wall. He then turned his eyes towards Asia Minor, which had broken from Rome in 260 to form the Palmyrene Empire. When he reaches Tyana, a small city located in southern Cappadocia in modern-day Turkey, he finds the city gates closed to him. Aurelian becomes enraged and exclaims, "in this town I will not even leave a dog alive" ( "canem in hoc oppido non relinquam, " SHA Aurel. 22.5).' Despite his anger, the citizens of Tyana suffered no harm, since one of them informed Aurelian of a weak point in the defensive wall that would allow for the easy 1 All translations my own, unless noted. 2 capture of the city. The soldiers clamor for the destruction of the city, recalling the emperor's earlier words. Aurelian replies "I did indeed declare that I would not leave a dog alive; well, then, kill all the dogs" ("canem, " inquit, "negavi in hac urbe me relicturum: canes omnes occidite, " SHA Aurel.23.2). The author continues to explain how the vision of Apollonius of Tyana led to Aurelian's change in temperament: We must not omit one event which enhances the fame of a venerated man. For, it is said, Aurelian did indeed truly speak and truly think of destroying the city of Tyana; but Apollonius of Tyana, a sage of the most renowned reputation and authority, a philosopher of former times, a true friend of the gods, who must be celebrated as a divine power himself, as Aurelian was withdrawing to his tenth, suddenly appeared to him in the form in which he is usually portrayed and spoke to him as follows, using Latin in order that he might be understood by a man from Pannonia, "Aurelian, if you wish to be victorious, there is no reason you should plan the slaughter of my citizens. Aurelian, if you wish to rule, abstain from the blood of innocents. Aurelian, conduct yourself mercifully, if you wish to live." Aurelian recognized the countenance of the venerated philosopher, and, in fact, he had seen his portrait in many a temple. And so, at once stricken with terror, he promised him a portrait and statues and a temple, and he returned to a better state of mind. Taceri non debet res, quae ad famam venerabilis viri pertinet. Fertur enim Aurelianum de Tyanae civitatis eversione vere dixisse, vere cogitasse; verum Apollonium Tyanaeum, celeberrimae famae auctoritatisque sapientem, veterem philosophum, amicum vere deorum, ipsum etiam pro numine frequentandum, recipienti se in tentorium ea forma, qua videtur, subito adstitisse atque haec Latine, ut homo pannonius intellegeret, verba dixisse, "Aureliane, si vis vincere, nihil est quod de civium meorum nece cogites. Aureliane, si vis imperare, a cruore innocentium abstine. Aureliane, clementer te age, si vis vivere." Norat vultum philosophi venerabilis Aurelianus atque in multis eius imaginem viderat templis. Denique statim adtonitus et imaginem et statuas et templum eidem promisit atque in meliorem redit mentem. (SHA Aurel. 24.2-6) In the following chapter, the author reports how Aurelian obeys the orders of Apollonius and acts with greater kindness and mercy. This strategy of leniency causes cities to welcome his approach; Aurelian plays the role of liberator and not conqueror and quickly regains control of Asia Minor. Though his manifestation is brief, Apollonius plays a central role in the life of Aurelian, literally appearing halfway through the work. Apollonius, as the author notes, 2 Cf. Watson (1999): 71-2. 3 wields an incredible amount of auctoritas. In the first place, the author equates Apollonius with the gods (both a friend of gods and a divine power himself). Second, Apollonius himself both gains the religious devotion of the Emperor and changes the course of his military campaign. Indeed, the author equates Aurelian's later military success directly with his adherence to Apollonius' edicts {praeceptis, quantum probatur, venerabilis viri Apolloniiparens humanior atque clementiorfuit, SWAAurel. 25.1). Political, military, and religious auctoritas all come together in the Apollonius depicted by the author of the Hist or ia Augusta. The second scene occurs nearly two centuries earlier in Cassius Dio's Roman History. Writing about the emperor Caracalla, who became co-emperor with his brother Geta in 211, Dio states that "he took such pleasure in magoi and goetes that he praised and honored Apollonius the Cappadocian, the one who was a goes and magos in the strict sense of the word, and he built a heroic shrine for him" (xoT<; 8e uayoic; Kai yonaw ouxcot; 8%oupev <bq Kai A7ro)Jabviov xov KowiTtaSoKriv xov ml xov Aouaxiavoo dv9f|oavxa s7iouv£iv Kai xiuav, oaxic; Kai yonq Kai \xayoq aKpij3fi<; syevexo, Kai f|pcoov auxcp KaxaoKsudoai, 77.18.4). Like the Historia Augusta, Dio highlights the religious veneration Apollonius receives from the Emperor; Caracalla builds a heroic shrine for Apollonius. This time, however, it's the wrong emperor honoring Apollonius for the wrong reasons. Dio's Apollonius is not a sage, let alone a friend of the gods or a divine power. Dio's Apollonius is a magos and a goes. 3 The similarity between Aurelius' vision of Apollonius and Constantine's vision of the chi-rho are striking. However, these similarities should not be taken to imply that the author of Aurel. was writing an anti- Christian polemic. See further Long (2006): 231-233. 4 Translators frequently use "magician" and "sorcerer" to render magos and goes, but such a translation for the passage from Dio creates the problem of redundancy. Nor would such a translation take into account the force of akribes, which, modifying magos, emphasizes precision or exactness - "in the strict sense of the word" as I translate it. Dio uses both magos and goes pejoratively but to suggest two different ideas about Apollonius. Magos originally designated Persian priests (Herod. 1.107-8, 1.132, 7.37, 7.113- 14); Xenophon calls them "technicians of the divine" (xoic; 7ispi xovq Osouc; uixAlov XE'/yixaic,, Cyr. 8.7.11); Plato, in his First Alcibiades, defines mageia as "worship of the gods" (Bscov GspoOTsia, 122a). It eventually becomes a term of abuse (cf. Aesch. 3.137). Given the importance of the "Persian barbarian other" for the construction of Athenian identity, particularly in Greek tragedy, I argue that Greek authors generally use magos to highlight their target's "otherness" and place them within the periphery of mainstream society. Magos mainly refers to cultural identity, and it is not until early Christian literature that it becomes associated with religious charlatan. A.D. Nock first suggested that the use of the term magos in the New Testament, particularly in the Acts of the Apostles, reflected a contest over religious authority.5 Thus the Jewish magos Bar-Jesus (Acts 13:6) and the magos Elymas (Acts 13:8) and most famously Simon magos (Acts 8:9) were contemporary religious rivals of the apostles. Yet, Nock overlooks the magoi of Matthew 2:1, who come from the East to Jerusalem. Far from being religious rivals, 4LSJs.v. II.2.a. 5 Nock (1922-1939), reprinted in Nock (1972):308-330. 5 these magoi lend authority to the birth of Jesus. In fact, the usual translation ofmagoi in Matthew 2:1 is either "wise-men" or the more common transliteration of it into Magi. Magos only comes to signify a religious charlatan quite late. If Dio truly means to use magos in the strict sense, and given the Atticizing tendency of the period in which he was writing, he would be highlighting Apollonius' cultural otherness. Goes is a much stronger pejorative than magos. Demosthenes frequently uses it in his speeches to attack rivals (18.276, 19.102, 29.32). Plato, in the Laws, states that those who practice goeteia claim to accomplish two things: leading up souls of the dead and persuading the gods (Lg. 909b2-5). The goes had strong necromantic associations; the term even shares a common root with the verb goad, to lament or mourn. Necromantic activity could lead to the connotation of magical practices, but a translation of "magician" fails to elucidate exactly what Dio is critiquing in his depiction of Apollonius and Caracalla. Lucian's Alexander, the False-Prophet can help clarify the term. Lucian labels Alexander of Abonoteichus a goes {Alex. 5), but this has less to do with his ability to perform magical acts than with Lucian's depiction of him as a religious charlatan. Alexander was an oracle whom Lucian presents as duping the general populace. Lucian's portrayal of Alexander has been compared to the characteristics and behaviors of modern cult leaders.6 It is precisely this that Lucian seeks to get across in his satire. Cassius Dio is likewise advertising Caracalla's attachment to illegitimate religious leaders, Apollonius being among them. Hence in Dio, we find a portrait of Apollonius as both cultural other (a magos) and as a religious fraud (a goes). 6 Kent (2006).