MACHINAL: SILENCE, STAGE DIRECTIONS AND SOPHIE TREADWELL BY Susanne Kepley Submitted to the graduate degree program in Theatre and Film and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. Henry Bial____________________ Chairperson Iris Fischer____________________ Mechele Leon____________________ Date defended: ______________ 2 The Thesis Committee for Susanne Kepley certifies that this is the approved Version of the following thesis: MACHINAL: SILENCE, STAGE DIRECTIONS AND SOPHIE TREADWELL Committee: Henry Bial________________________________ Chair Person Iris Fischer_______________________________ Mechele Leon_______________________________ Date approved:_______________________ 3 I. Introduction Twentieth century playwright Sophie Treadwell’s descent into relative obscurity is a widely commented upon topic. In his review of the 1993 London production of her play Machinal, Nicholas De Jongh refers to her as “the long lost heroine of modern American theatre” (Ch. 1, 17). Likewise, the New York Times article on the 1990 Public Theatre production of that same play announces “Play Proves Its Point in Obscurity” (Collins 7) and Jerry Dickey writes, “Scholarly assessments of Treadwell’s contributions have been slow to evolve, with mention of her largely consisting of passing references in historical texts” (13). In the preface to her 1982 dissertation on Treadwell, Nancy Wynn comments: I was disappointed and puzzled to find that [Treadwell] did not appear in current theatre history textbooks nor in such reference works as The Reader’s Encyclopedia of World Drama or The Oxford Companion to the Theatre. It seemed a safe assumption that the playwright who wrote Machinal also wrote other plays which merited recognition from scholars and artists of the theatre. (v) Wynn’s disappointment stems from the strange silence that surrounds both Treadwell’s life and most profoundly her theatrical work with the noted exception of Machinal. Treadwell was, after all, a playwright who had multiple plays produced on Broadway, yet her current commercial legacy consists of cyclically being salvaged from obscurity by a singular play. This thesis will examine that play, Machinal, by putting it into conversation with this legacy of silence. I will be placing my focus specifically on the stage directions of Machinal. I will argue that these stage directions are a vehicle for Sophie Treadwell’s silenced voice and that, in production, they can be used to voice the silence. 4 This thesis will be divided into three chapters. The first chapter will contextualize the play within its literary and production history. It will investigate Machinal’s authorial origins as well as how the play fits into the theatrical genre of expressionism. I will then investigate how various productions have staged Machinal. In doing so, I will pay particular attention to how Treadwell’s stage directions manifest themselves in production. The second chapter will put these stage directions in conversation with both Martin Puchner’s definition of modernist anti-theatricality and Umberto Eco’s definition of an open work. By doing so I will examine how Sophie Treadwell provides a space for theatrical innovation within her often anti-theatrical stage directions. Finally, the third chapter will propose a production concept implied by my findings. I will use Marvin Carlson’s definition of “ghosting” to discuss how Treadwell’s ghost can be brought out through these stage directions in production. Sophie Treadwell and the Young Woman upon which Machinal focuses are examples of a history and society that has rendered many women silent. In the production concept that I will propose in the third chapter of this thesis, I propose a way to voice this silence. It is the hope of that production concept and this thesis to interrupt this silence by encouraging discourse as well as the excavation of silenced women and ignored literature from the dusty archives of forgotten history. 5 Chapter I: Machinal in Context Part I: Sophie Treadwell and Machinal Sophie Treadwell was born in Stockton, California, on October 3, 1885. She received a degree in French from the University of Berkeley in 1906. Her interest in theatre began when she was in college and continued throughout her life. She wrote her first play, which was entitled Le Grand Prix, during 1906 and 1907 and continued writing and revising work through the 1960s. Upon her death in 1970, Treadwell had completed thirty-nine plays, many of which were produced on Broadway. Jerry Dickey writes, [Treadwell’s] plays often decry capitalism and cheer for the small, hardworking individual who is tied to the land and sustenance, yet she often preferred life in the city and was determined to succeed within the structure of commercial, Broadway theatre. (14) As Dickey states, Treadwell’s works received mixed reception on Broadway often due to their subversive content. She would stop writing for Broadway in the 1940s. Despite her varying success in commercial theatre, Treadwell supported herself throughout most of her life with her writing. In addition to her theatrical work, Treadwell worked sporadically as a reporter for various news publications. In fact, it was through her journalistic connections that Treadwell gained admittance to the murder trial that would serve as the inspiration for Machinal. Although Treadwell was a rather prolific playwright, only two of her plays made it to publication: Machinal and Hope for a Harvest. Produced on Broadway by the Theatre Guild in 1941, Hope for a Harvest dealt with immigration, the economy 6 and the growing diversity of America (Dickey 12). Critical reaction to the Broadway production was mostly negative and the production closed shortly after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, an event that made the play topically uncomfortable for American audiences. Machinal proved to be by far the most successful of her works. Although it only ran for 91 days on Broadway, the play received stellar reviews, and eventually became anthologized, and has enjoyed many revivals. It is through Machinal that most are introduced to Sophie Treadwell and her legacy. Machinal premiered on September 7th 1928 at the Plymouth Theatre in New York. The production was directed by Arthur Hopkins and designed by Robert Edmond Jones. The New York Times review that ran on September 8th states “Subdued, monotonous, episodic, occasionally eccentric in its style, Machinal is fraught with a beauty unfamiliar to the stage” (Atkinson 18). Indeed, Machinal was a critical hit. An advertisement which ran in the New York Times three weeks after the play’s opening: Machinal emerges as a triumph of individual distinction, gleaming with intangible beauty. Sophie Treadwell’s abstract treatment of the story, Zita Johann’s pellucid acting in the leading role, Mr. Hopkin’s immensely skillful production, have wrought an illuminating, measured drama such as we are not likely to see again. (NYT 9/23/1928, pg. x3) The play did not, however, fare so well amongst the commercial theatre going audience. The public did not appear concerned with seeing Machinal again and it closed, lauded and ignored, after ninety-one performances, a comparatively short run on Broadway. 7 Despite its lack of commercial success Machinal did make it into Burns Mantle’s Best Plays of 1928-1929 which, published in 1929, arrived in bookstores not long after the closing of Treadwell’s play. Mantle states that he “debated long” as to whether Machinal should be included in his list or excluded in favor of a more crowd drawing play by Federick Longsdale entitled The High Road (Mantle vii). In the end, Mantle decided to include Treadwell’s script because it “seemed a much more significant character study” (Mantle vii). In addition to Mantle’s collection, Machinal is also included in a collection entitled Twenty-Five Best Plays of the Modern American Theatre: Early Series edited by John Gassner. Gassner writes that Machinal was “one of the most unusual plays of the twenties” (494). In this volume, originally published in 1949, Gassner includes Machinal alongside such canonical works as Susan Glaspell’s Trifles and Eugene O’Neill’s Desire Under the Elms. Machinal’s ability to remain in publication though collections and anthologies has contributed greatly to its production history. In an article about the Public Theatre’s production of Machinal published in the New York Times in 1990, Matt Ellis, the manager of cash and investments for the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tucson to which Treadwell had left the rights to her plays, states: We allowed Machinal to be published by Applause Books in a collection called Plays by American Women in 1982, and since then about 12 colleges and universities have made inquiries for productions. (Witchel C2) As this quotation suggests Machinal’s production history became far more dense in the 80s and 90s. The introduction to Machinal in American Drama: Colonial to Contemporary states “Revivals of Machinal in the 1980s and 1990s have both 8 garnered generally positive critical reviews and attracted enthusiastic audiences in London, New York and San Francisco” (362). Part II: Ruth Snyder, Expressionism, and Machinal There are a number of factors that could have contributed to Machinal’s initial lack of Broadway longevity as well as its recent popularity. Two of the most glaring are its historical subject matter and its experimental style. Treadwell used the plight of infamous housewife turned murderess Ruth Snyder as her point of inspiration for the play. In 1927, Ruth Snyder, a Long Island housewife, colluded with her lover, Judd Gray, and killed her husband, Albert Snyder, with a window sash weight. The ensuing murder trial captivated America. Jennifer Jones writes: For eight months the country was obsessed with the Snyder/Gray murder trial; over 180 reporters from across the nation were assigned to the case, and readers hung on every word they wrote. When the two lovers were finally convicted and sentenced to die in the electric chair there was, literally, dancing in the streets. (39) Treadwell utilized her connections as a reporter to gain access to the trial of Ruth Snyder, which was, as Jones reports, a literally high priced, ticketed event: Over fifteen hundred people attended; for the first time in history, microphones and speakers were set up in a court room so that everyone could hear the testimony. One had to have a ticket to be admitted, and scalpers were ready, as always, to a make a quick buck, selling tickets for fifty dollars apiece. (42) While Sophie Treadwell did manage to gain admittance to the trial, she did not attend to officially report upon it. Treadwell had previously officially reported on two other high profile murder trials that featured female defendants. The result of Treadwell’s courtroom observations would be Machinal. Jerry Dickey writes: 9 Rather than reporting on the events of the press, however, Treadwell used Snyder as point of departure for a dramatic indictment of a society whose masculine laws and orientations stifled the emotional needs of women. (11) She took this very real point of inspiration and transplanted it into a framework of theatrical expressionism thus allowing for some artistic distance between the non-fictional and the theatrical. At her trial Ruth Snyder stated that the motive behind her and her lover’s murderous act was to take “a step toward a larger freedom, a fuller enjoyment of life…” (Wynn 109). Nancy Wynn writes that the paradox of the brutal act juxtaposed with the rationale that this was a step toward freedom piqued Treadwell’s curiosity: what crushing set of circumstances could compel the woman to murder her husband to attain freedom? (109) The expressionistic style that Treadwell utilized as the dramatic structure of Machinal allowed her to use the Snyder murder trial non-specifically. Within Machinal Treadwell does not tell a biographical story of Ruth Snyder but rather a story of a Young Woman whose life resembles that of Ruth Snyder and whose society resembles our own. As an expressionistic work, Machinal eschews realism. The public had already seen realism when they witnessed the trial and execution of Ruth Snyder. Within Treadwell’s play we never see the execution of Young Woman. The play concludes just previous to her demise. The stage directions in the final episode of the play state: “The TWO GUARDS take YOUNG WOMAN by the arms, and start through the door in the bars and down the passage, across the stage, and off” (401). As a result, the Young Woman is represented by the sound of her voice pleading from offstage throughout the final moments of the play until it is eventually silenced by, we assume, death. In 10 reality, a reporter for the Daily News managed to sneak a camera into Ruth Snyder’s execution and took a picture of her electrocuted body. This photograph ran in the paper the following day. The visual reality of Ruth Snyder’s executed body did little to engender sympathy and instead served as one more piece of spectacle for the “real” drama the public had been following for eight months. Realism was obviously not a space that would allow for a reexamination of events or for a reevaluation of the societal response to a woman murdering her husband. By placing her examination of society within the expressionistic theatrical space, Treadwell was able to distance her play from the “objective reality” her audience had already accepted and make way for less biased discourse and, perhaps, even sympathy (though, in 1928, it was perhaps too soon to hope for a non-biased audience). The expressionistic theatrical style Sophie Treadwell employed in Machinal was relatively new to the theatrical world in 1928 and was especially new to the American theatre. The term “expressionism” was initially used to describe a trend in visual art in the early 20th century. Styan writes: In the 1900s it was a useful word to distinguish early impressionist painting from the more energetic individualism of Van Gogh and Matisse, each of whom refused to render exactly what he saw, in order, Van Gogh said, ‘to express himself with force’ […] The expressionist flatly rejected any realistic style as being obvious imitation: he was not interested in objective reality, and he refused to be wedded to surface detail. (1-2) Defining expressionism as a theatrical genre is a difficult task. While it is an often referred to genre, pithy definitions of expressionism are rare. Styan writes that, like many theatrical genre titles, “the term is generally applied after the fact, and