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Thank you, Kay Livesay Associate Professor of Psychology ChairiRB [email protected] (503) 883-2708 900 SE Baker St., McMinnville, OR 97128-6894 1 Losing the Hacienda: the Agrarian Reform's Effect on Landowners in the Peruvian Andes Susana Fajardo Anthropology, Linfield College May29, 2013 Abstract In 1968 the Peruvian govermnent was overtaken by a military coup, ushering in the agrarian reform-a system of land distribution that would irrevocably change the country. Concepcion, 1 a member of the land-owning elite, lived in a time and place at the very heart of the agrarian reform. As both a woman and acting manager for her family's haciendas during the 1950s and 1960s, she provides an excellent case study of how Peru's national agrarian reform policies changed the lives of land-owners in the highlands of Ayacucho. I will use her life to do an ethnography of the particular2 to examine the central need for region-level analysis when studying the agrarian reform. Examination of class structure, racial differences, gender, and land- ownership show that rather than being truly revolutionary, the agrarian reform was just the final straw for a system already in steep deterioration. Introduction Undeniably, the Peruvian agrarian reform has left a legacy that still impacts the country to this day. After their conquest of the Inca empire was completed, the Spanish crown began instituting a land tenure system in the form of haciendas-large swaths of land given as a reward 1 All names have been changed to protect privacy. 2 An ethnography of the particular is a method that uses the particular to study the whole. By deeply examining an individual or a small piece, a greater understanding of the greater picture can be achieved. Examples of this are Nisa: the Life and Words ofa ! Kung Woman by Marjorie Shostak and Translated Woman: Crossing the Border with Esperanza 's Story by Ruth Behar. In both of these cases, the author used the story of one woman to greater illuminate and examine aspects of the society as a whole (Shostak 1981; Behar 2003). Additionally, this method gives voice to the individual experience in ways that using a larger sample size can sometimes overlook. 2 to conquistadores and others (Klaren 2000, pp. 78). This feudalistic system gave much wealth and, in consequence, political power to a small group of hacienda owners called hacendadol. In addition to millions of acres of hacienda land, hacendados also acquired quasi-feudal rights over and obligations to the people who lived and worked the haciendas (Klaren 2000, pp. 78). Wealth, prestige, power, and money were funneled into the hands of a small group at the expense of millions of poor peasants who were forced to give labor, goods, or money to their hacendados (Klaren 2000,79). Although hacendados were obligated to give their peasants I certain rights and protections, the system overall exploited the labor of workers. The hacienda system may have been current with the times when it was created in the seventeenth century, but by the twentieth century the haciendas were woefully out of date. Hundreds of years of mistreatment and little autonomy had, by then, created a great sense of injustice among the peasantry. Peasant unrest and unhappiness had always been part of the hacienda experience (Valencia 1984, 29) but by the mid-twentieth century it was becoming apparent that the haciendas were increasingly untenable. On October 3, 1968 a highly skilled group of Peruvian army rangers crossed the Rimae River and invaded Peru's presidential palace. General Juan Velasco Alvarado, chief of the Peruvian armed forces, successfully lead the takeover of the Peruvian government and the arrest of then President Fernando Belarinde. Velasco later became the leader of the Government of the Armed Forces, the group that would control Peru for the next twelve years. Even though Velasco's rise to power was sudden and accomplished by means of force, the Peruvian peasantry grew to love him, nicknaming him El Chino (The Chinese Guy).Velasco's regime treated them 3 The term lwcendado is a Spanish word for a person who owns or controls a hacienda or haciendas. Most Spanish words are modified based on number and gender. This term is no different When talking about a single, male hacienda owner the term is /wcendado. A female hacienda owner is a lwcendada. When speaking about more than one male hacienda owner the term is lwcendados; when speaking about more than one female hacienda owner it is lwcendadas. When speaking about more than one hacienda owner and at least one of the subjects is male the plural, male form-lwcendados-is always used. When the subject is ambiguous, assume that the term implies both genders. Thus, when I use the term lwcendados it will refer to all hacienda owners, male and female, unless I explicitly state otherwise. 3 with more respect and dignity than any prior leaders had and let the average person in the political process in ways that had been previously barred to them. He was, however, unpopular with the upper classes and parts of the middle class. They saw him as a threat to their elevated social position. This was not without cause: within a few years Velasco had dramatically shifted the way the government treated them and had abolished many of the privileges that they had until then taken for granted (Mayer 2009, pp. 2-5). In a 1969 speech Velasco aunounced to the poor of the country that "the landlord is no longer going to eat from your poverty" (Mayer 2009, pp. 20); the agrarian reform was thus begun. Within two days the government began taking control of coastal haciendas (Mayer 2009, pp. 20). Over the next ten years the government claimed over fifteen thousand properties and nine million hectares of land, all in the name of the people (Mayer 2009, pp. 20). This seized land was then redistributed to landless peasantry, the majority of which was pressured into joining agricultural cooperatives (Mayer 2009, pp. 20-21). Three hundred thousand families participated in these cooperatives-exercising an autonomy and self-determination that they had never before experienced (Mayer 2009, pp. 21). Although participation in political processes and local autonomy was greater than ever, thanks in large part to the cooperatives, the reform's redistribution ultimately failed. The new system was not sustainable. The agrarian reform did succeed in breaking land monopolies but it did not solve many of the problems it hoped to address; instead, it transferred them from haciendas to the newly redistributed properties (Mayer 2009, pp. 23). Most cooperatives fell apart within a few years due to internal conflicts and Peru's agricultural sector floundered until the mid-1980s (Mayer 2009, pp. 23). Concepcion, an hacendada in Ayacucho, was personally impacted by the sweeping changes brought about by the Government of the Armed Forces. Born in Huanta and later a 4 Map l:Peru ® Natorool""plt#l u OOparlmlrltcepR~I $1 Prmii'Oill ca:littl 1\0"E: C::i!ao l~ lhD mpta! of tile {))mtitJUDllil PrO\'/fiCO ub•'rtl •I~f ftwoo, w~:h~m!fdt toll lbmo t!i1m:6>lW•t'!u onnf¥ h-tlP.f t'm4~JpI.> IIn~rd From: http://www.theodora.com/maps/new9/peru administrative map.gif member of the social elite in Huamanga (the state capitol of Ayacucho), she was raised in a life of privilege. Her father was a wealthy hacendado and her husband, Francisco, was both an hacendado and successful lawyer. A land-owning hacendada in her own right, she was greatly tied to the family estates and managed all of the family properties during the 1950s and 1960s. She remained in the state of Ayacucho until the early 1980s and experienced first-hand the 5 repossession of her family's property during the agrarian reform. Her story helps makes sense of how Peru's agrarian reform played out on the ground. She died in 2006, but living memory still rests with her children. For this study, her children Manuel, Carmen, Luis, and Jesus all agreed to Map 2: The State of Ayacucho From: htto://www.ayacuchoperu.com/archivos/imagenlmapa ayacucho.gif be interviewed. Through the use of their narratives, I will use her story as a lens to answer this central question: how did the agrarian reform affect those living in the state of Ayacucho, Peru, particularly landowners? Additionally, I will argue against macro-level analysis and demonstrate 6 the absolute need for regionalized analysis when studying the agrarian reform. Furthermore, I will argue that with its inclusion of prestige and social status as analytical categories, a Weberian approach makes far more sense of this case than does a Marxian approach focused solely on class to understanding Peru's social realities. Theory . Karl Marx, father of conflict theory, argues that "the history of all hitherto society is the history of class struggle" (Marx 1948). Ultimately, Marx sees humanity's struggles bound up in the fight for control over the means of production. Capitalist societies, he argues, are organized, into two distinct classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie control the means of production-they own capital and wield power in society because of it (Marx 1848). The proletariat, however, work for the bourgeoisie and provide the labor necessary for the production of new material goods Moreover, labor is itself treated as a commodity. Laborers (proletariat), therefore, must monetize the work they perform, in essence selling themselves as a commodity all the while competing against each other within their class. The proletariat, in order to sell their labor, must undercut the value of their own work in order to make themselves more appealing to potential employers. On the whole, while they provide the raw labor that fuels industrialized capitalism, they are caught in a constant cycle of exploitation. The proletariat, as the disenfranchised and disempowered, struggle to gain power in society. The bourgeoisie, however, struggle equally as hard to maintain and solidify the power they already have. It is this constant class-based fight for dominance that propels society forward, propels invention and modernization.