Lorenzo Valla’s Critique of Aristotelian Psychology LODI NAUTA Introduction The question how humanism relates to scholasticism is an highly com- plex one which admits of no simple answer. Today no scholar would consider them as monolithic and homogeneous movements. Our answer will vary with the subject under consideration (a particular discipline, schooling and the curriculum, methodology, attitude towards the ancients, and so forth), and is dependent on the region we look at as well as the period within the large stretch of time between, let us say, 1350 and 1600. Nevertheless some basic Weberian ideal positions may be distin- guished. One may stress with P. O. Kristeller that the two lived for a long time aside each other, catered for diVerent interests and motives, and functioned at diVerent institutional levels. Humanism was not a philo- sophical movement but a literary one, focusing on grammar and rhetoric. According to this well-known line of interpretation, humanism should not be seen as “the new philosophy of the Renaissance, which arose in oppo- sition to scholasticism, the old philosophy of the Middle Ages”, for “the Italian humanists on the whole were neither good nor bad philosophers, but no philosophers at all”.1 Kristeller was therefore sceptical about the view that humanism represented a new vision of man. A somewhat diVerent position is developed by Ronald G. Witt in his book on the early phase of Italian humanism, even though Kristeller’s views are his point of departure.2 More than Kristeller, however, does Witt see humanism as embodying a new vision of man and the world, and as such he puts it in stark contrast to scholasticism. The Middle Ages are almost invariably associated with scholasticism, theology, and “agri- cultural, monarchical, ecclesiastical” values, while humanist values are 1 P. O. Kristeller, Humanism and scholasticism in the Italian Renaissance, in: P. O. Kristeller, Renaissance thought and its sources, ed. M. Mooney, New York 1979, 85-105, on 90-1. 2 ‘In the Footsteps of the Ancients’. The Origins of Humanism from Lovato to Bruni, Leiden 2000, 1-5. © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2003 Vivarium 41,1 Also available online – www.brill.nl valla’s critique of aristotelian psychology 121 “urban, communal and secular”.3 Moreover, the goals of the Middle Ages, Witt maintains, “are not ours, whereas the humanists’, in important ways are. We also share values. Like the humanists, for example, we regard issues of individual and societal reform as urgent, favor secular over super- natural arguments, and take a critical stance toward the authorities whom we cite”.4 Even though he quali(cid:142)es the contrast occasionally, this con- trast runs as a basso continuo through his work. In spite of this weakness, Witt’s book contains immensely valuable discussions of individual texts and authors, and is to be counted as a major contribution to scholarship on humanism.5 Other scholars have seen more points of contact between scholasticism and humanism, in spite of the obvious diVerences in interests, method and institutional setting. In the Low Countries and Germany, humanism and scholasticism often overlapped during the late (cid:142)fteenth and early six- teenth century.6 Eckhard Kessler has argued that humanism can be con- sidered in some respect as a transformation of issues—in particular in the (cid:142)eld of language and grammar—already dealt with by the scholastics. According to him, the humanist project may be interpreted, “nicht als ‘Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums’ durch Überwindung der Scholastik sondern als Transformation der scholastisch-aristotelischen Tra- dition mit Hilfe antiker Denkelemente (...)”.7 The very fact that human- ists reacted so vehemently against the scholastics shows that “sie noch an diese gebunden sind und das Neue, das sie vertreten, auf die scholasti- sche Tradition bezogen ist und nur von ihr her, als Antwort auf ihre Probleme, verstanden werden kann”.8 3 Ibid., 199. 4 Ibid., 29. 5 See the critical appraisals by Robert Black in his review article in: Vivarium, 40 (2002), 272-97 and my Humanisme en de middeleeuwen, in: Millennium, tijdschrift voor middeleeuwse studies, 16 (2002), 68-77. 6 See for instance G.-R. Tewes, Die Bursen der Kölner Artisten-Fakultät bis zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts, Cologne 1993, 665-805 (‘Bursen-Humanismus und Bursen-Scholastik in Köln’); T. Heath, Logical Grammar, Grammatical Logic and Humanism in Three German Universities, in: Studies in the Renaissance, 18 (1971), 9-64; J. H. Over(cid:142)eld, Humanism and Scholasticism in Late Medieval Germany, Princeton, N.J. 1984. 7 E. Kessler, Die Transformation des aristotelischen Organon durch Lorenzo Valla, in: E. Kessler, C. H. Lohr and W. Sparn (eds.), Aristotelismus und Renaissance. In memoriam Charles B. Schmitt, Wiesbaden 1988, 53-74, on 55. While critical of Kessler’s interpretation, I have learned much from his stimulating work. 8 Ibid. Cf. also his Die verborgene Gegenwart Ockhams in der Sprachphilosophie der Renaissance, in: W. Vossenkuhl and R. Schönberger (eds.), Die Gegenwart Ockhams, Weinheim 1990, 147- 122 lodi nauta Modern scholarship on Lorenzo Valla, in particular on his work on dialectics, re(cid:143)ects these diVerent approaches to the question how human- ism relates to scholasticism. In some accounts of Valla’s scholarship, the medieval traditions do not play a prominent role. His radical use of philo- logy in bringing into focus the Greek text of the New Testament and in exposing the forgery of the donation of Constantine is highly innovative, and scholars have argued that his philological and grammatical studies are without precedent.9 Some scholars have emphasised that Valla’s think- ing departs in fundamental ways from scholastic modes of thought, and that the two have hardly anything in common. John Monfasani for instance has argued that, while there are some apparent similarities between Valla’s nominalism and Ockham’s, “Valla’s anti-realist tendencies start from quite a diVerent basis than Ockham’s, and Valla’s logical system can hardly be accommodated to Ockham’s”.10 Most scholars are less reluctant to bracket the names of Ockham and Valla. W. Scott Blanchard has argued that Valla’s critique of the universals and Aristotelian categories “contin- ues late medieval developments in the logic of William of Ockham”, and that “his theory of the relationship that exists between language and the world is, with some quali(cid:142)cation, broadly nominalistic, and therefore rep- resents a continuation of certain medieval developments”.11 Fubini has spoken of “l’impronto del nominalismo occamistico”, and Zippel too has used the phrase Valla’s “occamismo”.12 The best developed defence of 64, on 148 (Ockham was for the humanists not only “der äußere, unverstandene Gegner” but also, “neben Cicero und Quintilian, der innere Gesprächspartner”; “er scheint zu zeigen, daß seine [i.e. Ockham’s] verschwiegene und daher verborgene Gegenwart die Rezeption der antiken Rhetorik durch die Humanisten gleichermaßen motiviert und geprägt hat”). 9 But see the important study by Robert Black, Humanism and Education in Medieval and Renaissance Italy. Tradition and Innovation in Latin Schools from the Twelfth to the Fifteenth Century, Cambridge 2001, who stresses the continuity between medieval and humanist grammar teaching, at least at an elementary level. 10 J. Monfasani, review of Lorenzo Valla, Repastinatio dialectice et philosophie, ed. G. Zippel, in: Rivista di letteratura italiana, 2 (1984), 177-94, on 191; repr. in his Language and Learning in Renaissance Italy. Selected Articles, Aldershot 1994, no. VI. Compare also his Disputationes vallianae, in: F. Mariani Zini (ed.), Penser entre les lignes. Philologie et philosophie au Quattrocento, Villeneuve d’Ascq 2001, 229-50 on 234. 11 W. Scott Blanchard, The negative dialectic of Lorenzo Valla: a study in the pathology of oppo- sition, in: Renaissance Studies, 14 (2000), 149-89 on 179. 12 R. Fubini, Contributo per l’interpretazione dellaDialectica di Lorenzo Valla, in: G. F. Vescovini (ed.), Filoso(cid:142)a e scienza classica, arabo-latina medievale e l’età moderna, Louvain-la-Neuve 1999, 289-316 on 303 (and cf. 305); G. Zippel, introduction to his edition of Valla’s Repastinatio dialectice et philosophie, Padua 1982, 2 vols., i, pp. lxxxviii and xci. valla’s critique of aristotelian psychology 123 this position is by Eckhard Kessler who speaks of “Vallas Anknüpfung an Ockham”. He has argued that “the Ockhamist interpretation of Aristotle’s Organon was the foundation of Valla’s reform”.13 In a recent article I have criticised this widely-held interpretation.14 By comparing Ockham with Valla on semantics and ontology, I have tried to show that there is no good reason to bracket their names. Apart from the fact that Valla’s knowledge of medieval logic was super(cid:142)cial and that of late-medieval developments almost non-existent, his version of nomi- nalism has almost nothing to do with Ockham’s and is, in some respects, fundamentally at odds with it. Further, the two show widely diVerent approaches, methods and arguments. This article will continue this line of research and consider a hitherto neglected and misunderstood aspect of Valla’s critique of scholastic philosophy: his criticisms of Aristotelian psychology or, to use a more appropriate term, scientia de anima.15 Some scholars such as Trinkaus have suggested that there is a link between Valla’s criticisms and Ockham’s rejection of sensible species in the process of cognition. Others have bracket his name with later Renaissance nat- ural philosophers such as Telesio in considering man and his mental fac- ulties as integral part of nature.16 After having looked in some detail at Valla’s arguments (which surprisingly few scholars have done), I shall brie(cid:143)y examine these claims. Valla’s Repastinatio dialectice et philosophie Valla’s critique of Aristotelian psychology occurs in the framework of his attack on scholastic-Aristotelian logic and metaphysics in the Repastinatio dialectice et philosophie (‘re-ploughing’ or ‘re-laying’ the ground of dialectics and philosophy). This work, as he himself makes clear, is meant as a thorough transformation of the Organon. The (cid:142)rst book of the Repastinatio, which deals with the categories and transcendentals, corresponds to the Categories; the second, which deals with the combination of terms into 13 Kessler 1988 (op. cit., above, n. 7), 63, 55 and passim. 14 Lodi Nauta, William of Ockham and Lorenzo Valla: False Friends. Semantics and Ontological Reduction, in: Renaissance Quarterly, 56 (2003), 613-51. 15 D. Des Chene, Life’s Form. Late Aristotelian Conceptions of the Soul, Ithaca and London 2000, 11 n. 3 on the term ‘scientia de anima’. 16 C. Trinkaus, Valla’s Anti-Aristotelian Natural Philosophy, in: I Tatti Studies, 5 (1993), 279- 325, on 301. G. Zippel 1982 (op. cit., above, n. 12), vol. 1, cxviii-cxx. Cf. Fubini 1999 (op. cit., above, n. 12), 316. 124 lodi nauta propositions and with commonplaces, to the De interpretatione, the Topica and the Rhetorica; the third, which deals with the combination of propo- sitions into various forms of argumentations, to the Analytica Priora and, to a lesser extent, De sophisticis elenchis.17 Valla attempts to replace the tra- ditional transcendental terms (essence, quiddity, being, truth and unity) by ‘res’, a good classical Latin word and one which, according to Valla, captures much better our ordinary notion of a thing than do the ungram- matical terms of the scholastics. Furthermore, he reduces the ten Aristotelian categories to substance, quality and action, which correspond roughly with the basic grammatical categories noun, adjective (and adverb) and verb by which we describe things in the world. His discussion of the human soul, which will be considered in detail in this article, is part of his treat- ment of substance, while the related theme of sensation is discussed in one of the chapters on qualities. Valla continued to work on the Repastinatio throughout his life. It exists in three versions, which diVer from each other in some respects. In the (cid:142)rst version the treatment of the soul (chapter 14) includes a long sec- tion on the virtues, which in the later versions has become a separate chapter (10) after that of the soul (9). In the later versions, Valla quotes extensively from Aristotle’s works, which he has studied in the interven- ing years. The third recension testi(cid:142)es to his deepened knowledge of Greek with digressions on terms such as zÅon, ktÛzv and lñgow.18 Moreover, the second and in particular the third recension treat some new issues, which generally take up the (cid:142)rst half of that chapter; the second half of it cor- responds to the discussion in the (cid:142)rst recension. For my purposes it is not always necessary to take notice of these diVerences. Valla’s basic posi- tions remain unaltered. I have reordered his discussion and distilled the main issues. 17A. Perreiah, Humanistic Critiques of Scholastic Dialectic, in: The Sixteenth Century Journal, 13 (1982), 3-22, on 12; Kessler 1988 (op. cit., above, n. 7), 55, J. Monfasani, Lorenzo Valla and Rudolph Agricola, in: Journal of the History of Ideas, 28 (1990), 181-200, on 195 (repr. in his Language and Learning in Renaissance Italy, no. V). For a recent, uncritical discussion of the Repastinatio, see Marco LaVranchi, Dialettica e (cid:142)loso(cid:142)a in Lorenzo Valla, Milan 1999. 18 On the (limited) use of Greek in the Repastinatio see P. Mack, Renaissance Argument. Valla and Agricola in the Traditions of Rhetoric and Dialectic, Leiden 1993, 100-2, who concludes that Valla’s interest in Greek was as “an aid to the understanding of Latin rather than a separate and equally important study”. valla’s critique of aristotelian psychology 125 Souls of Plants, Animals and Men Valla’s basic conviction is that the soul is a much more noble thing than the hylomorphic account of Aristotle, at least on Valla’s interpretation, implies.19 He stresses therefore at various places the soul’s digni(cid:142)ed nature, its immortality, autonomy and superior position vis-à-vis the body and vis-à-vis animals, comparing it to the sun’s central place in the cosmos.20 On the other hand this positive evaluation is not easy to square with some views expressed elsewhere in his work. For one of his main point of criticisms of Aristotle is the latter’s view that animals lack a rational soul. According to Valla, animals too have a soul, albeit a mortal one, for they too possess memory, reason and will. (See below.) But if the diVerence between the human soul and the soul of animals is one of degrees, why does the human soul survive death, while the soul of ani- mals, which consists of the same capacities, does not? Valla’s answer is simply that God created immortal souls for men, as the biblical account of God’s infusing spirit in man shows.21 But in an earlier passage he claims that the souls of animals are substances which are created out of nothing, with divine aid, rather than “ex potentia materie” as philoso- phers have claimed.22 Why does Valla insist on this point? Not out of love for animals, I suppose, but rather because it enabled him to contradict Aristotle and to set him against his favourite authorities Cicero and Quintilian. Quintilian, for instance, considered speech as the main diVerence between man and animals, arguing that “animals had thought and understanding to a cer- tain extent”.23 Valla quotes Quintilian and adds that the various mean- ings of the term ‘logos’—speech or language and reason—have been confused by later philosophers who thought that ‘a-loga’ means ‘with- out reason’ while it only meant ‘without speech’ in the case of animals.24 19 I quote volume and page number of Zippel’s edition. Vol. 1 contains Valla’s third version, including a critical apparatus which lists variant readings from the second ver- sion. Vol. 2 contains the (cid:142)rst version. 20 Repastinatio, ed. Zippel 1982 (op. cit., above, n. 12), i, 59-73 (for the comparison,see71). 21 Ibid., i, 68-69. 22 Ibid., i, 65. In the Middle Ages some thinkers such as Adelard of Bath held that animals have rational souls but this was a minority position. Augustine and Aquinas, for instance, were quite adamant in maintaining that animals lack reason; see R. Sorabji, Animal Minds and Human Morals. The Origins of the Western Debate, London 1993, 195-8. 23 Institutiooratoria, II.xvi.15-16, transl. H. E. Butler, 4 vols., Cambridge, Mass. i,323-4. 24 Repastinatio, ed. Zippel 1982 (op. cit., above, n. 12), i, 70. An important source for Valla is Lactantius who held that animals have reason, can converse, laugh, and have foresight (Divine Institutes, III.10; cf. Sorabji, 1993 (op. cit., above, n. 22), 202). 126 lodi nauta To those who see the diVerence between men and animals in terms of ‘instinct’ and ‘reason’, Valla replies that this is only a matter of words.25 Instinct is nothing more than a sort of impulse (impetus), which also men possess when they are excited; hence they are called “instincti”. This impulse arises from the will, and hence it would be of no help to those who argue that the presence of instinct means the lack of reason. Aristotle therefore was wrong, Valla continues, to argue that animals and young children lack the power to choose (electio) because they lack reason. His criticisms of Aristotle are unfair, however, for Aristotle’s opinion was clearly that reason develops as children grow older, appetite being the primary faculty in the early years of their life. Elsewhere Valla himself gives a quotation from Aristotle’s Politics to this eVect.26 Valla also argues for a rational soul in animals because he wants to get rid of the idea of three or four diVerent souls in creatures—one of the central doctrines of Aristotelian psychology. Of course, there existed a large literature on the question whether the expressions ‘vegetative’, ‘sensitive’ and ‘rational soul’ did not jeopardise the soul’s unity. Thomas Aquinas for instance held that in human beings there is only one soul substantially, a soul which is rational, sensitive and nutritive.27 Valla’s crit- icism does not seem to consider such a defence. He rejects out of hand, without much discussion, the existence of “vegetative, sensitive, imagina- tive and rational souls”.28 For him there is only one soul, which has three capacities—memory, reason and will. This has two important conse- quences: animals are upgraded and plants downgraded. The animal soul has the same constitution as that of the human soul; hence, it is said to 25 Ibid., i, 67-8. Zippel quotes Paul of Venice’s Liber de anima: “apes et formicae (...) agunt solum ex instinctis naturae (...) et ita non proprie agunt opera prudentiae, sed solum prudentiae naturalis” (Summa philosophie naturalis, ed. Venice 1503, 84v, col. B). In the Middle Ages, the common view was that the seemingly rational behaviour of animals was due to the estimative faculty. On Avicenna’s theory of estimation and its in(cid:143)uence in the Latin West, see D. Hasse, Avicenna’s De anima in the Latin West, London-Turin 2000, 127-53. On Aquinas’ position who held that only animals had this faculty, see Sorabji 1993 (op. cit., above, n. 22), 64; cf. 75, 86 and 113. 26 Politics, VII.15, 1334b22, quoted by Valla, Repastinatio, ed. Zippel 1982 (op. cit., above, n. 12), i, 62. Cf. Politics, I.13, 1260a12-14 (reason may be complete or incomplete). See Sorabji 1993 (op. cit., above, n. 22), 70. 27 Quaestiones disputatae de anima, q. 11, ed. B.-C. Bazan, Rome 1996 (Leonine ed., vol. 24,1). 28 Repastinatio, ed. Zippel 1982 (op. cit., above, n. 12), ii, 409. The separate mentioning of the “imaginative soul” is odd, for imagination, as one of the internal senses, belonged to the sensitive soul. valla’s critique of aristotelian psychology 127 be a substance which is created, with divine aid, out of nothing rather than out of pre-existing material. Valla claims that all schools of philoso- phers have denied this.29 By excluding the vegetative aspect, he denies— against Aristotle—that plants and trees have souls.30 They are not “ani- malia”, that is animated things (“res animate”). But Valla then has to answer the question how plants live—if they can be said to live at all— if not by the presence of a soul. Valla’s argument drives him almost as far as to accept the conclusion that they actually do not live, but he seems to hesitate, perhaps because this would contradict the ordinary usage of the word ‘live’. Hence, if they must be said to live at all, they live “per viriditatem”, not “per animam”, and he quotes St Paul’s words “[Thou] fool, that which thou sowest is not quickened, except it die”, by which St Paul, however, means quite something else. Thus Valla appar- ently does not consider nutrition and reproduction as adequate criteria of life. The Three Capacities of the Soul: Memory, Reason and Will According to Valla, the soul exists of memory, reason and will—the Augustinian triad—which was also in(cid:143)uential among the scholastics, espe- cially the Franciscans. Valla does not quote Augustine here, but he is clearly indebted to the church father in his chapter on God, although Valla would not be Valla if he did not make some critical remarks on Augustine’s ambiguous statements on the ontological nature of the per- sons of the Trinity.31 The capacities are closely connected to each other— one of the reasons why animals too possess reason, for no one would deny that they have memory and will. Memory comprehends and retains things, reason (which is “identical to the intellect”) examines and judges them and will desires or rejects them.32 Valla simply speaks of things which memory perceives and retains and reason judges. There is no men- 29 Ibid., i, 65. 30 Valla was apparently not the only one to do so. Suárez writes that “certain mod- erns (so I am told) have dared to deny that the vegetative form, considered absolutely [praecise], is a soul; and consequently they deny that plants are alive” (quoted by Des Chene 2000 (op. cit., above, n. 15), 25 n. 32; cf. 57, n. 10). 31 Repastinatio, ed. Zippel 1982 (op. cit., above, n. 12), i, 50; ii, 404. For Valla’s some- times critical stance towards Augustine see R. Fubini, Indagine sul De voluptate di Lorenzo Valla, in his Umanesimo e secolarizzazione, da Petrarca a Valla, Rome 1990, 339-94, on 374. 32 Ibid., i, 66-7; ii, 410. 128 lodi nauta tioning of phantasms or species or other kinds of intermediaries, though of course it would be diYcult to hold that the various capacities of the soul—memory and reason for instance—can work without any kind of intermediary. Memory is fundamental, being the “mother” of reason or the soul’s life.33 Wisdom is therefore called the daughter of experience (usus) and memory. These are ancient topoi,34 though the typically humanist orien- tation on human experience and practice give them a new colouring. More importantly, Valla describes the capacities (which he also calls vires) in physiological terms, taking over, without much discussion, some tradi- tional points. The body receives its powers and hence its warmth from memory (which includes sense perception); that the region of the heart constitutes the sensory centre is good Aristotelian doctrine.35 From rea- son it has its ingenuous distribution of the humours and other things (“sollertam distributionem”), from the will it has its warmth. Valla is par- ticularly fond of the analogy between the soul and the sun. Just as the sun has three qualities—vibration, light and ardour—so the soul has mem- ory, reason and will. Their activities are compared to those of the vibrat- ing and radiant beams of the sun by which things are grasped, illumi- nated and heated. There are some echoes of Lactantius’s De opi(cid:142)cio Dei, which is quoted a few times by Valla.36 Though memory is called the soul’s life and mother of the intellect, in the chapter on the virtues Valla stresses that there is no functional hierarchy between the capacities. It is one and the same soul that com- prehends and retains, investigates and judges, and desires or hates things, 33 Ibid., i, 73; ii, 410. 34 Aulus Gellius, Noctes atticae, XIII.8; Aristotle, Anal. Post., 2.19, 100a5-6; Metaph., 1.1, 980b29-30: from perceptions memory is derived and from memories experience (empeiria). Cf. Sorabji 1993 (op. cit., above, n. 22), 20. One is reminded of Hobbes: “all knowledge is remembrance” (English Works, ed. W. Molesworth, 11 vols., London 1839, iv, 27). Still another source for the importance of memory is Augustine, who said that memory is the fundamental source of all our truth (De trinitate, XV. 40), because it is the storehouse of everything we know, including the eternal, innate ideas, which divine illumination enables us to see. Though divine illumination is mentioned once by Valla in a controversial pas- sage (i, 19-20), I do not think it is of much relevance here. 35 E.g. De partibus animalium, II.10, 656a28. 36 Repastinatio, ed. Zippel 1982 (op. cit., above, n. 12), i, 122 and 155; ii, 432 and 446. For quotations from Lactantius by Valla, see the index of Zippel’s edition (the Divine Institutes is quoted more often by Valla). For the analogy between the soul and the sun in Valla see C. Trinkaus, Italian Humanism and Scholastic Theology, in: A. Rabil (ed.), Renaissance Humanism: Foundations, Forms and Legacy, 3 vols., Philadelphia 1988, 327-48 on 343-4. valla’s critique of aristotelian psychology 129 and no capacity rules over the other.37 Valla’s point is obviously addressed to those who place the intellect above the will. It is the will, with the aid of memory, which teaches the intellect rather than the other way round.38 The intellect can even be hindered by the body, that is, by bod- ily aVections such as drunkenness, headache or tired limbs. This should not be taken as a con(cid:142)rmation of Valla’s anti-intellectual stance in ethics, for elsewhere he praises man’s soul, which, in contrast to those of ani- mals, is made (cid:142)t to know heavenly and eternal things.39 Moreover, the argument would not upset scholastic philosophers, who did not shy away from this obvious, physiological fact, but for whom the question then became important what that dependency tells us about the ontological category in which we have to place the soul.40 For Valla, the relationship between the soul and its three capacities is that of substance and its qualities.41 He does not pose explicitly the ques- tion, which scholastics treated at length, whether the soul is identical with its powers. It is interesting to note however that in this respect he is closer to the scholastic tradition than the Augustinian one. Augustinians had argued that the diVerence between the soul and its powers is merely a verbal one, the soul being identical to its powers, which are only diVerent names for its diverse actions. When the writings of Avicenna and Averroes became known, scholastic authors began to accept a real distinction between the soul and its powers. Albertus the Great and Thomas Aquinas described them as substance and its qualities or essence and its acci- dents.42 Nominalists generally took the Augustinian line in saying that 37 Ibid., i, 75: “Et iccirco errant, qui intellectum voluntatis dominum imperatoremque constituunt. Ausim dicere, ne doctorem quidem illum esse voluntatis: non docetur volun- tas, sed ingenium seipsum labore suo docet adiutrice memoria, utque hoc ducem memo- riam ita ipsum voluntas ducem habet, una eademque anima tum capit et tenet, tum inquirit et iudicat, tum amat aut odit; nec sibi ita ipsa imperat ut una in parte domina sit, in alia ancilla: quod si posset imperare ratio voluntati, nunquam profecto voluntas peccaret.” 38 Compare however Repastinatio, i, 67, ed. Zippel 1982 (op. cit., above, n. 12): “ergo non potest in brutis sequi voluntas, nisi antecesserit iudicatio”, as if the will has to wait for reason’s judgement. Valla could have argued that this constitutes a diVerence between animals and men, but he does not do so. 39 Ibid., i, 69 echoing Lactantius, Divine Institutes, III.10. 40 See K. Park, The organic soul, in: C. Schmitt and Q. Skinner (eds), The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy, Cambridge 1988, 464-84, on 468. On the question whether soul is substance or accident see Des Chene 2000 (op. cit., above, n. 15), 67-102. 41 Repastinatio, ed. Zippel 1982 (op. cit., above, n. 12), i, 65 and ii, 410. Cf. ii, 365 where this is stated with some vehemence (“Sed non ideo quia abesse a substantia nequeunt [scil. qualitates], erunt hec omnia coniuncta ‘substantie’ nomine appellanda...”). 42 E.g. Albert the Great, De homine, I.73.2.2.2 (ed. A. Borgnet, Opera omnia, vol. 35,