Living Beyond the Edge: The Impact of Trends in Non-Standard Work on Single/Lone-Parent Mothers Marylee Stephenson and Ruth Emery The research and publication of this study were funded by Status of Women Canada’s Policy Research Fund. This document expresses the views of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official policy of Status of Women Canada or the Government of Canada. June 2003 Status of Women Canada is committed to ensuring that all research produced through the Policy Research Fund adheres to high methodological, ethical and professional standards. Specialists in the field anonymously review each paper and provide comments on: • the accuracy, completeness and timeliness of the information presented; • the extent to which the methodology used and the data collected support the analysis and recommendations; and • the original contribution the report would make to existing work on this subject, and its usefulness to equality- seeking organizations, advocacy communities, government policy makers, researchers and other target audiences. Status of Women Canada thanks those who contribute to this peer-review process. National Library of Canada cataloguing in publication data Stephenson, Marylee, 1943- Living beyond the edge [electronic resource]: the impact of trends in non-standard work on single/lone parent mothers Issued also in French under title: Vivre dans l’insécurité complète, répercussions des tendances du travail atypique sur les mères chefs de famille monoparentale. Issued by Policy Research. Issued also in print format. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-662-34088-4 Cat. no. SW21-107/2003E-IN 1. Poor single mothers – Employment – Canada. 2. Poor single mothers – Economic conditions – Canada. 3. Poor women – Employment – Canada. 4. Informal sector (Economics) – Canada. I. Emery, Ruth. II. Canada Status of Women Canada. III. Canada Status of Women Canada. Policy Research. IV. Title. HD6059.C3L58 2003 331.4’086’24 C2003-980154-3 Project Manager: Vesna Radulovic, Status of Women Canada Publishing Co-ordinator: Cathy Hallessey, Status of Women Canada Editing and Layout: PMF Editorial Services Inc. / PMF Services de rédaction inc. Translation: Linguistica Comparative Read: Christiane Ryan Translation Co-ordinator: Monique Lefebvre, Status of Women Canada Translation Quality Control: Marie-Josée Martin For more information contact: Research Directorate Status of Women Canada th 123 Slater Street, 10 Floor Ottawa, Ontario K1P 1H9 Telephone: (613) 995-7835 Facsimile: (613) 957-3359 TDD: (613) 996-1322 E-mail: ABSTRACT This is an empirical study of the impacts the trends in the labour force (the increased use of non-standard, contingent working patterns) have on single mothers/lone parents. The already precarious socio-economic situation of the majority of single mothers is exacerbated by these trends, and the combination of their relatively low educational rates and modest employability skills, coupled with their sole responsibility for care of their children, makes active participation in the labour force an unlikely and often impractical direction to pursue. The study draws on a combination of cross-Canada interviews with 82 single mothers participating in employability-enhancement training, interviews with 49 government respondents and service providers, an intensive labour force analysis and a review of Canadian and international literature. The authors conclude that ongoing adjustment to existing national taxation and child benefit regimes is inadequate for bringing about genuine change for the better for these most vulnerable women and their children. Rather, they call for a substantial re-orientation of national values and an innovative, flexible and integrated system of policies and programs that address the full complexity of the changing labour market and the situation of the women. Only such a comprehensive approach can result in truly effective, long-term change for the better for this important segment of our society. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLES AND FIGURES.................................................................................................. ii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................... iii PREFACE...........................................................................................................................iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................................................................v EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................vi 1. CONTEXT OF THE STUDY .........................................................................................1 2. STUDY METHODOLOGY............................................................................................5 3. FINDINGS.......................................................................................................................8 Findings from the Literature..........................................................................................8 The Contingent Labour Market ...................................................................................21 The Labour Market for Single Mothers/Lone-Parent Women ....................................24 Single Mothers and Their Employment Circumstances ..............................................28 Lived Lives: Single Mothers Speak about Living Beyond the Edge...........................48 Government, Service and Advocacy Respondents' Views on Sustainable Employment for Single Mothers Living Beyond the Edge .........................................66 Trends in Employment Patterns and Economic Circumstances of Single Mothers ....67 Employment-Related Policy and Programming Needs for Single Mothers ................71 4. RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE......................................................................................................................78 APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................83 A: Primary Sources of Statistical Information ..................................................................83 B: Additional Tables..........................................................................................................84 BIBLIOGRAPHY..............................................................................................................92 ENDNOTES ......................................................................................................................97 TABLES AND FIGURES Figures 1 Comparison of Employment Rates: Women, Youngest Child under Three..........25 2 Comparison of Employment Rates: Women, Youngest Child Three to Five .......26 Tables 1 Distribution of Single Mothers Interviewed ............................................................6 2 Distribution of Respondents .6 3 Lone-Parent Women: Employment and Incidence of Low Income ......................27 4 Women with Children, 1981 to 1996.....................................................................30 5 Lone-Parent Women by Age and Labour Market Activity ...................................32 6 Employment Rates by Age, Lone-Parent Women and Women with Partners ......33 7 Lone-Parent Women by Age and Incidence of Low Income ................................34 8 Labour Market Characteristics of Women with Children......................................35 9 Labour Force Activity of Lone-Parent Women and Family Income.....................37 10 Aboriginal and Visible Minority Single Mothers, 1996 ........................................39 11 Aboriginal Lone-Parent Women Age Distribution Compared to Overall Lone-Parent Women, 196 .39 12 Educational Atainment, 1996 .39 13 Lone-Parent Women, Education and Income ........................................................41 14 Lone-Parent Women, Occupation and Income, 1995............................................43 15 Location of Respondents.50 16 Age of Respondents ...............................................................................................51 17 Number of Children .51 18 Mother’s Age and Number of Children .................................................................51 19 Mother’s Education.51 20 Other Training.52 21 Mother’s Age and Education .................................................................................52 22 Mother’s Income Source........................................................................................52 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS CCSD Canadian Council of Social Development CCTB Canada Child Tax Benefit EI Employment Insurance HRDC Human Resources Development Canada LICO Low Income Cut Off NCW National Council of Welfare NOC National Occupation Classification SLID Survey of Labour and Income Dynamics SP Self-Suficiency Project PREFACE Good public policy depends on good policy research. In recognition of this, Status of Women Canada instituted the Policy Research Fund in 1996. It supports independent policy research on issues linked to the public policy agenda and in need of gender-based analysis. Our objective is to enhance public debate on gender equality issues to enable individuals, organizations, policy makers and policy analysts to participate more effectively in the development of policy. The focus of the research may be on long-term, emerging policy issues or short-term, urgent policy issues that require an analysis of their gender implications. Funding is awarded through an open, competitive call for proposals. A non-governmental, external committee plays a key role in identifying policy research priorities, selecting research proposals for funding and evaluating the final reports. This policy research paper was proposed and developed under a call for proposals in September 2000, entitled Women’s Access to Sustained Employment with Adequate Benefits: Public Policy Solutions. Other research projects funded by Status of Women Canada on this theme examine issues such as policy options for women in non-standard employment, improving working conditions among home day care providers, supports for single mothers and women with disabilities, and occupational health. A complete list of the research projects funded under this call for proposals is included at the end of this report. We thank all the researchers for their contribution to the public policy debate. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The primary researchers and authors of this study are Marylee Stephenson, Ph.D., president of CS/RESORS Consulting, Ltd. and team leader, and Ruth Emery, labour market economist. For the cross-Canada program of field work, we were joined by Catherine Lussier, Ph.D. (Montréal, QC), Christine Brown, M.A (Toronto, ON), Cheryl Laurie, M.A. (Winnipeg, MB), Vanessa Charles-Botting (Saskatoon, SK), Judy Lynn Archer (Edmonton, AB), Karin Milton (Wolfville, NS) and Massi Abedi (St. John’s, NF). Their assistance has been invaluable. We would like to thank all the respondents who participated in this study. Dr. Stephenson had the opportunity of discussing an early version of the findings with Margrit Eichler, Ph.D. and Monica Townson, economist, and she would like to thank them for their penetrating review and constructive comments. Finally, during much of this long process, the project officer from Status of Women Canada was Vesna Radulovic. We are particularly appreciative of her tact and patience throughout the study. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Single mothers, lone-parent mothers, sole-support mothers — whatever the terminology, the reality of life for the majority of the women and their children in these situations can be summed up simply: more and more individuals, becoming poorer and poorer. The focus of this study is the women at the very edges of economic survival, who have the greatest — and usually the sole — responsibility for the economic and social well-being of themselves and their children. The research examines the relationship between the increased socio- economic vulnerability of single mothers and their children and the changing nature of the labour market. This change is due in large part to globalization, along with a greatly increased reliance on the contingent work force. The analysis for this study is based on a review of literature on the situation of single mothers with special reference to labour market participation patterns and income levels, and relevant government policies and programming. A labour market analysis was done and interviews took place in eight provinces (in either official language) with 82 lone-parent mothers and 49 other key respondents drawn from employment-related service providers, relevant federal and provincial departmental representatives, advocacy group representatives and a small number of researchers in the field. The review of national and international literature clearly showed the dramatic change in the labour market in the face of globalization and technological development. The move has been away from full-time, tenured work to the so-called “flexible” (i.e., “contingent” or “non- standard” work). As the literature confirms, this is a key factor in the increasing economic vulnerability of increasing numbers of workers, especially single mothers and their dependent children. Overall, the literature confirms the complexity of the barriers facing single mothers and documents the fact that existing taxation and social support policies and programs do not work effectively to reduce their poverty. Policies of interest in Canada, the United States, Sweden and Australia were reviewed. Those policies offering the most promise are multi- faceted, flexible and capable of sustaining the most vulnerable of mothers and children through the vicissitudes of often marginal labour market participation. Overall, lone-parent women, when compared with other women and other mothers, have a more difficult route to employment, and their comparative situation in terms of employment participation and relative income levels has worsened. Many of the jobs these lone-parent women can find, or even keep, do not offer the stability or income they need to support their families. Indeed, work has become less stable all across the economy. In many sectors, but especially in the growing service industries, there is far more part-time work available and far less full- time work. Core employment, encompassing work that is undertaken on a full-time, full- year basis has declined as a share of all employment.