ii © Copyright by Syed Rizwan Zamir All Rights Reserved August 2011 iii ABSTRACT Ayatullah ‘Ali> Naq}i> Naq}vi> (1905-1988) is arguably the single most important religious figure of the twentieth century Indian Shi’ite Islam. Emerging out of a very well-known family of traditional scholars and the seminaries of India and Iraq, his religious and intellectual career lasted several decades during which he remained prolific and continuously preached from the pulpit. During his life he wrote and spoke about a host of subjects: the reason-revelation divide, a defense of Islam from attacks on its core beliefs and practices, Qur’anic exegesis, theology, defense of Shi’ite theology and religious practices from sectarian polemics, Islamic history, Islamic political and social thought, explanation of the various rulings of Islamic law, and the theme of Karbala and the martyrdom of H{usayn. Conscious of his role as the most learned juridical authority (marja‘ al-taq}li>d) to whom the community would turn in times of crisis, for ‘Ali> Naq}vi>, in his life the greatest crisis facing the community was that of irreligiosty, of people losing confidence and conviction in the worth of religion for human civilization. The present study argues that ‘Ali> Naq}vi>’s diverse intellectual endeavors were guided by a conscious and well-thought out unity of vision and purpose: efforts to restore to religion of Islam its privileged status within the Indian Shi’ite and the broader Muslim community. An overview of the intellectual career and religious thought of ‘Ali> Naq}vi>, this study examines his efforts to preserve and revive Islam for his community. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to my advisors, Dr. Abdulaziz A. Sachedina and Dr. Peter W. Ochs and the committee members, Dr. Ahmed H. al-Rahim and Dr. Richard Barnett, for their guidance, patience and efforts that made possible completion of this dissertation. I would also like to thank my colleagues in the Department of Religion at Davidson College, especially Dr. William Mahony, Dr. Trent Foley, Dr. Karl Plank and Dr. Greg Snyder who were all immensely encouraging and supportive. Without the kind of support I received at Davidson College, completion of this project in a timely manner would not have been possible. I would also like to thank Dr. Zafar Ishaq Ansari, Director Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad, and Research scholars, especially Dr. Qaiser Shahzad who generously provided facilities at the Institute and access to the library during my stay there. The research conducted at the Institute was critical to the development of the dissertation. Special thanks to Maulana Syed Mustafa Hussain Aseef Jaisi of Noor-e-Hidayat Foundation (Lucknow) whose assistance in the collection of primary texts was indispensable. Insights of my colleagues at the University of Virginia, Matt Munson, Dr. Ron Bentley, Dr. Jacqueline Brinton and Dr. Robert Tappan provided countless inspirations and remained a constant source of motivation and encouragement. Numerous friends assisted me during different stages of this project, in editing, and in reading drafts and providing feedback. They include Fuad S. Naeem, Zachary Markwith, Betsy Mesard, Ali Galestan and most of all Reza Hemyari who went out of the way to help me. I thank them all. I owe my studies in the United States to the unwavering trust, prayers and confidence of my mother Mrs. Razia Zamir Syed and sister-friend Dr. Um-e-Salma Rizvi. Their support and encouragement was vital to the successful completion of my studies. Finally, I dedicate this dissertation to the living memory of my belated father Dr. Syed Zamir Hussain. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page i Copyright ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v Introduction 1 Biography of ‘Alī Naqvī 3 The Crisis of Religion and ‘Alī Naq}}}vī’s Reconfiguring of IslamicTradition 4 Outline of the Chapters 9 Literature in the Field 12 Chapter 1: ‘Alī Naq}vī’s Reception of the Crisis of Religion 15 Introduction 15 India Going through Unprecedented Change 23 The Crisis of Religion (mazhab) 33 Missionaries, Religious Pluralism, and Attacks on Islam 38 The Crisis of Religious Authority 42 Irreliogisty, Materialism and Westernization 47 The Problem of Muslim Disunity 55 Concluding Remarks 58 Chapter II: Hermeneutics of the Religio-Intellectual Project and 61 the Relationship between Intellect and Revelation Introduction 61 Relationship between the Intellect and Mazhab (Religion) 66 The Indispensability of the Intellect 66 Why Intellect, Whence its Centrality? 74 Limitations of the Intellect 88 Concluding Remarks on the Relationship between Religion and the Intellect 94 ‘Ali> Naq}vi>’s Heremeneutics: Some Concluding Remarks 101 Chapter III: Mapping Religion onto Life: 107 Religion as Sagacious Ordering of Life Introduction 107 Part I: Overcoming Dichotomies: ‘Ali >Naqv} i’> s Isl}ah>} of the Concept of Religion 111 vi Introduction 111 What Religion is not? Prevailing Misunderstandings about the Reality of Religion 112 The All-Encompassing Ambit of Religion 120 Overcoming the Faith-Works Dichotomy 125 Argument I: Principles and Branches of Religion (Us}u>l-furu>‘) and the Complementarity of Faith and Works (‘aq}i>da wa ‘amal) 126 Argument II: Widening the Meaning of Worship 133 Concluding Remarks: Toward a Renewed Understanding of Religion 137 Part II: Indispensability of Religion for Human Civilization: Religion as Sagacious Ordering of Life 142 Part i. Religion and the Order of Life: Mapping Religion onto Life 143 Hierarchy of Knowledge and Primacy of Religion 154 Part ii: Question of Change 163 Concluding Remarks 169 Chapter 4: The H{usayni<-Is}la<h} Paradigm: Reviving Islam through Karbala 171 Introduction 171 Part I: Historicizing Mythology: ‘Ali> Naq}vi>’s Reconfiguration of the Shi‘i Lamentations (‘aza>da>ri>) 176 Why Karbala? 177 Which Karbala? ‘Ali> Naq}vi>’s Isl}ah>} of the Karbala-Commemoration 185 The Historical Argument 193 The Religious Argument 194 The Relationship between the Two Arguments 200 The Karbala Paradigm and Sociopolitical Activism 201 The True Purpose of Karbala-Commemoration 203 Part II: Mythologizing History: Ethico-Religious Implications of the H{usayni>-Is}la>h} Paradigm 208 Conclusion: The Relationship between ‘Ali> Naq}vi>’s Reconfiguration of Islamic Theology and Praxis and the H{usayni>-is{la>h} Paradigm 218 Chapter 5: The Later Writings and ‘Ali> Naq}vi>’s Is}la>h} of the Society 225 Introduction 225 Part I: An Overview of ‘Ali> Naq}vi>’s Later Writings and their Relationship with the Earlier Writings 229 Continuities 229 The Q{ur’a>nic Commentary 236 Rethinking Islam’s Sacred History 241 Concluding Remarks (Part I) 247 Part II: ‘Ali> Naq}vi>’s Social Reform 251 Why Social Reform? 251 How to Carry Out Social Reform? 253 Illustrating ‘Ali> Naq}vi>’s Reform of the Shi>‘ite Culture 256 The Issue of Governance 263 Concluding Remarks 275 vii Conclusion: A Comprehensive Is}la>h}? Reflections on ‘Ali> Naq}vi>’s Thought and Legacy 283 Popularizing the Reconfigured Message 283 Reflections on ‘Ali> Naq}vi>’s Religio-Intellectual Project 289 ‘Ali> Naq}vi>’s Legacy 297 Appendix I 306 Appendix II 307 Bibiliography 312 1 INTRODUCTION This study examines the religious thought of Ayatullah ‘Ali> Naq}i> Naq}vi> (1905–88), arguably the most prolific, influential, and popular Indian Shi’i traditional scholar of the twentieth century. ‘Ali> Naq}}vi> hailed from Lucknow, the provincial capital of Uttar Pradesh and a hugely important historical and cultural center of northern India. He belonged to arguably the single most prominent family of traditional Shi’i scholars (‘ulama>’) of the Indian subcontinent, popularly known as the Kha>nda>n-i Ijtiha>d (Household of Ijtiha>d1, 1752 to present). Generation after generation, scholars of this family have played a crucial role in shaping the religious and political landscape of the Awadh Dynasty (1722–1858) and beyond.2 Their contributions were even greater in fashioning the Shi’i tradition of the Indian subcontinent as it exists today.3 For the 1 In the context of India, Mawla>na> Dilda>r ‘Ali>, the sixth generation forefather of ‘Ali> Naq}vi>, was primarily responsible for the shift from the juridical-theological position of Shi’i Akhba>rism (relying on scriptural sources alone for deriving legal injunctions and rejecting the necessity of ijtiha>d) to Us}u>lism (taking reason as a source of legal reasoning and positing the incessant necessity of ijtiha>d). Since Dilda>r ‘Ali>, this family has upheld the us}u>li> position writing numerous treatises in its defense, and attacking their Akhbar> i > opponents. On ‘usu}l>i->akhbar>i> divide within Shi’i intellectual history see Robert Gleave, Scripturalist Islam: The History and Doctrines of the Akhbari School of Shii Thought, (Brill: Leiden, 2007). This juridical-theological position is perhaps the reason why this family came to be called the “Household of Ijtihad>.” Many scholars of the family were bestowed honorable titles such as Sultan al- ‘ulama>’ (The King of scholars) and Bah}r al-‘ulu>m (the Ocean of knowledge) by the Awadh rulers. ‘Ali > Naq}vi> himself is popularly known in India as Sayyid ul-‘Ulama>’ (Master of Scholars). 2 See Juan R. I. Cole, Roots of North Indian Shi’ism in Iran and Iraq: Religion and State in Awadh, 1722- 1859 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988). For the various accounts on the significance of Dilda>r ‘Ali> see especially pages 61-66 and 127-139. Complete bibliographical information of cited works can be found under the “Bibliography” section of this study. 3 As Rizvi A Socio-Intellectual History of the Ithna' 'Ashari> Shi>'ism in India, 2 vols. (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1986) has pointed out, the strong historical ties of Indian Shi’i scholars with the seminaries in Iraq, the borrowings and adaptations from Persian and Iraqi Shi’ism which led to a uniquely Indian cultural expression of Shi’i Islam, and theologically the movement away from Akhba>ri> traditionalism towards U<s}u>li> rationalism can all be attributed to the role this family’s many scholars have played, both as religious leaders and as political allies of the rulers of Awadh. This is all in addition to the huge religious corpus produced by this family that exceeds hundreds of commentaries, treatises, religious manuals, and religious rulings that cover all religious subjects, from Qur’anic studies to jurisprudence and mysticism. For a discussion of the significance and scholarly contributions of this 2 twentieth century ‘Ali> Naq}}}vi> is the most prominent representative of this family; from the point of view of communal fame, among the greatest. Yet even within this family of eminent scholars ‘Ali> Naq}}vi> is unique. First, it was during his lifetime the Indian subcontinent went through unprecedented sociopolitical and religious transformations. Second, while training as a scholar in the seminaries of Iraq, for thirteen years he also taught at Aligarh University, the hub of Islamic modernism in India. Third, rarely has a Shi’i scholar of his stature spoken directly to the masses as he did, making use of the pulpit and public lecturing. This dual engagement with Islamic traditionalist (the ‘ulama>’ scholarly tradition) and modernist circles (the new intellectual elite) seems to have profoundly shaped the thought of ‘Ali> Naq}vi>, making him particularly relevant in understanding the relationship between Shi’i traditionalism and modernism. The varying subjects that he wrote or spoke about include Qur’anic exegesis, theology, history, jurisprudence, political thought (including treatises on war and martyrdom), intra-faith debates (for example critiques of Wahhabism, Ba>bi>yah, and Ah}madi>yah), defense of Muslim (and Shi’i) personal law (including topics such as gender roles, veiling, and temporary marriage), and numerous social issues such as the relationship between religion and culture. These writings and sermons constitute over two hundred titles (mostly in Urdu but also in Arabic and Persian). This study of ‘Ali> Naq}}}vi>’s life and his theological thought is the first on any scholar of the “Household of Ijtiha>d,” and for that matter, of any Shi’i scholar of the family see pp. 128–77. In light of the significance of this family one awaits a study comparable to Francis Robinson’s on the Farangi> Mah}}al family (2002). 3 Indian subcontinent.4 The study seeks to introduce ‘Ali> Naq}vi> to the scholarly world by way of a systematic textual study of his key ideas in the domain of Islamic theology and sociopolitical thought and his efforts to popularize his message. Biography of ‘Ali> Naq}vi>:5 ‘Ali> Naq}vi> was born on December 26, 1905 in Lucknow in the family of esteemed religious scholars of the Household of Ijtiha>d (See Appendix A). Between the age of 3 and 4, to complete his studies in Islamic religious sciences, his father Sayyid Abu al- H{asan (Mumta>z al-‘ulama>’) took him and his family to Iraq. In Iraq at the age of 7, ‘Ali> Naq}vi>’s formal education began with Arabic and Persian grammar and basic learning of the Qur’an. In 1914, the family returned to India and he continued his religious education under the supervision of his father and later at the Sult}a>n al-Mada>ris seminary. He also studied Arabic literature with Mufti> Muh}ammad ‘Ali>. In 1923 he passed the exam for certification of religious scholar (‘a>lim) from Allahabad University and soon also gained certification from Naz}a>mi>yyah College and Sult}a>n al-Mada>ris. In 1925 he was awarded a degree in literature (Fa>z{}il-i adab). In 1927, ‘Ali> Naq}vi> departed 4 For studies of Sunni Islam in the modern Indian context see Muhammad Qasim Zaman, The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002) and Usha Sanyal, Devotional Islam and Politics in British India: Ahmed Riza Khan Barelvi and His Movement, 1870-1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Barbara Daly Metcalf, Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1990 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982); Francis Robinson, The Ulama of Farangi Mahall and Islamic Culture in South Asia (London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2001); Schimmel (1963) on Iqbal>; Troll (1978) on Sayyid Ahmad Khan; Aziz Ahmed (1967) on Islamic modernism in India; Reetz (2006) on various Sunni> religious movements in first half of the twentieth century; and Vali Nasr (1994 and 2001) on Mawdudi> and Jama>‘at-e-Islami>. 5 For the purpose of compiling ‘Ali > Naqv} i’> s biographical information, I have relied on the following sources: Salam> at Rizvi,> Sayyid al-‘Ulama’>: ha}yat> wa kar>nam> ay (Publishing City: Publisher 1988), a biography of ‘Ali Naqvi>; (Author’s name) “H{aya>t-I Sayyid ul-‘Ulama>’,” Kha>nda>>n-i Ijtiha>d (November 2010): 46-82; ‘Ali > Naqvi,> introduction to Fas}l al-Khat}a>b (Karachi: Publisher name, 1986), his Qur’anic commentary; Sala>mat ‘Ali> Rizvi>, “Sayyid al-Mufassiri>n, S{adr al-Muh}aqqiqi>n, Ayatullah al-‘Uz}ma Maula>na> Sayyid ‘Ali> Naq}i> Naq}vi>” in Khanda>n-i Ijtiha>d (December 2005): 80-4; and ‘Allamah Sayyid Sa‘i>d Akhtar Rizvi> Gopa>lpuri>, “Sayyid ul- ‘Ulama>’ ‘Alla>mah Sayyid ‘Ali> Naq}i> Naq}vi> mujtahid” in Kha>nda>>n-i ijtiha>d (February 2004): 74-7. 4 for the seminaries of Iraq, then the most prestigious place for religious training in the Twelver Shi’i world. During his stay there, he studied Islamic jurisprudence with Ayatullah Na>’ini>, Ayatollah Abu H{asan Isfa>ha>ni> and Ayatullah Sayyid D{i>ya>’ Ira>q}i>, H{adi>th with Shakyh ‘Abba>s Q{ummi> and Sayyid H{usayn S{adr and Islamic theology (Kala>m) with Sayyid Sharf al-Di>n, Shaykh Muhammad H{usayn Ka>shif al-Ghita>’, Shaykh Jawa>d Bala>ghi>, Sayyid Muh}sin Ami>n A<mli>. As it will be noted later, while studying in Iraq ‘Ali> Naq}vi> also wrote a few works in Arabic. After completing his seminary education and receiving certification (ija>za>’) for ijtiha>d, in 1932 ‘Ali> Naq}vi> returned to India. Immediately upon his return he began preaching regularly on Fridays. In 1933 he was appointed as professor in the Oriental College Department of Lucknow University, where he then taught Arabic and Persian for over two decades. In 1959, Aligarh Muslim University invited ‘Ali> Naq}vi> to take up the position of Reader in the theology (di>ni>yat) department—which as yet did not have teaching faculty. The department also created two parallel streams of Sunni and Shi’i theology and ‘Ali> Naq}vi> began to oversee the affairs of the Shi’i branch. Between 1967 and 1969, ‘Ali> Naq}vi> became the dean of Shi’i theology eventually retiring from the university in 1972. Post- retirement, from 1972-1975 ‘Ali> Naq}vi> was given a research professorship through the University Grants Commission (UGC) and he decided to permanently stay in Aligarh. He died on May 18, 1988 in Lucknow and was buried at H{usayni>yah Jannat Ma>’a>b. The Crisis of Religion and ‘Ali Naq}}}vi’> s Reconfiguring of Islamic Tradition Writing about ‘ulama>’ Qasim Zaman (2002) notes: The ‘ulama have not only continued to respond -- admittedly, with varying degrees of enthusiasm and success -- to the challenges of changing times; they have also been successful in enhancing their influence in a number of