i Lexical Ontological Semantics Lexical Ontological Semantics introduces ontological methods into lexical semantic studies with the aim of giving impetus to various fields of endeavours which envision and model the semantic network of a language. Lexical onto- logical semantics (LOS) provides a cognition- based computation- oriented framework in which nouns and predicates are described in terms of their semantic knowledge and models the mechanism in which the noun system is coupled with the predicate system. It expands the scope of lexical semantics, updates methodologies to semantic representation, guides the construction of semantic resources for natural language processing, and develops new the- ories for human- machine interactions and communications. Guoxiang Wu is Associate Professor in the College of Foreign Languages at Huaqiao University, Quanzhou, China. His research interests include (1) lex- ical semantics, translation studies and natural language processing; and (2) English for overseas Chinese affairs. He is the translator of Cognition- Based Studies on Chinese Grammar. Yulin Yuan is Professor in the Department of Chinese Language and Literature at Peking University, Beijing, China. His research interests include (1) theoretical linguistics and Chinese linguistics; and (2) computational lin- guistics and Chinese information processing. He is the author of Cognition- Based Studies on Chinese Grammar. ii Routledge Studies in Chinese Linguistics Series editor: Hongming Zhang Routledge Studies in Chinese Linguistics is a state-o f- the- art book series showcasing high- quality research on the linguistics of the Chinese language. Titles in the series range from seminal classics to cutting-e dge studies in the field, and comprise both research monographs and edited volumes. Titles in the series include: Lexical Ontological Semantics Guoxiang Wu and Yulin Yuan Modern Chinese Grammar A Clause- Pivot Approach Fuyi Xing Syntax- Phonology Interface Argumentation from Tone Sandhi in Chinese Dialects Hongming Zhang Cognition- Based Studies on Chinese Grammar Yulin Yuan, translated by Guoxiang Wu The Interfaces of Chinese Syntax with Semantics and Pragmatics Yicheng Wu Dimensions of Variation in Written Chinese Zheng- Sheng Zhang The Semantics of Chinese Classifiers and Linguistic Relativity Song Jiang For more information, please visit: www.routledge.com/ Routledge- Studies- in- Chinese- Linguistics/ book- series/ RSICL ii i Lexical Ontological Semantics Guoxiang Wu and Yulin Yuan iv First published 2019 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 Guoxiang Wu and Yulin Yuan The right of Guoxiang Wu and Yulin Yuan to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-i n- Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-i n- Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978- 1- 138- 85524- 3 (hbk) ISBN: 978- 1- 315- 72046- 3 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Newgen Publishing UK v Contents List of illustrations vi Preface vii Abbreviations xi Introduction: From lexis to lexical ontological semantics 1 1 The semantic network and ontological lexicology 16 2 A qualia- structure descriptive system for nouns 31 3 An argument- structure descriptive system for predicates 59 4 The QS- AS coupling mechanism 108 5 A corpus- based lexicon- construction interactive model 146 6 Automatic restoration of implicit predicates 165 7 Qualia structure and translated text analysis 198 8 Conclusion 220 References 224 Index 230 vi List of illustrations Figures 0.1 Five calligraphical styles of the character 永 yǒng ‘everlasting’ 11 4.1 Semantic associations between QSDS@noun and ASDS@predicate 110 4.2 The QS- AS coupling mechanism and the lexical network 138 4.3 The network of conceptual relations in the ‘tennis’ problem 141 4.4 The network of conceptual relations in the ‘birthday’ problem 144 5.1 A paratactic sentence annotated with semantic roles 160 5.2 A subordinate sentence annotated with semantic roles 161 5.3 An overview of the corpus- based lexicon- construction interactive model 162 7.1 A three- layer relation among lexical qualia, lexical items and lexical situations 201 Tables 2.1 Sentiment polarities on a five- point scale 57 6.1 The semantic classification system in SKCC 172 6.2 The Noun_ Noun table (a library of paraphrase templates) 185 6.3 The Noun_ Verb table (a knowledge base of nouns) 190 vi i Preface Lexical Ontological Semantics (LOS) introduces ontological methods into lexical semantic studies with the aim of giving impetus to various fields of endeavours which envision and model the semantic network of a language, including the practice of lexical ontology or ontological lexicon and the theory of ontological lexicography or ontological semantics. LOS provides a cognition- based computation- oriented framework in which nouns and predicates (including verbs and adjectives) are described in terms of their semantic knowledge, and models the mechanism in which the noun system is coupled with the predicate system on the basis of large-s cale annotated corpora. It expands the theoretical scope of lexical semantics, updates meth- odological solutions to semantic representation, guides the construction of semantic resources for natural language processing, and develops new the- ories for human- machine interactions and communications. This book is based on a number of works or programmes that we and our colleagues have undertaken in the past few years, including: 1. Guoxiang Wu (researcher) and Yulin Yuan (supervisor) 吴国向, 袁毓林. (2015). Lexical Ontological Semantics:  An Empirical Exploration 词汇本体语义学的实证性研究. Unpublished post-d octorate disserta- tion, Department of Chinese Language and Literature, Peking University. 2. Yulin Yuan 袁毓林. (2014). On a descriptive system of qualia struc- ture of Chinese nouns and its application in parsing complex Chinese grammatical phenomena 汉语名词物性结构的描写体系和运用案例. Contemporary Linguistics 当代语言学, 16(1), pp. 31– 48. 3. Yulin Yuan 袁毓林. (2013). A study of Chinese semantic knowledge system based on the theory of generative lexicon and argument struc- ture 基于生成词库论和论元结构理论的语义知识体系研究. Journal of Chinese Information Processing 中文信息学报, 27(6), pp. 23– 30. 4. Yulin Yuan and Hong Cao 袁毓林, 曹宏. (forthcoming). An Introduction to the Syntactic- Semantic Knowledge-B ase of Chinese Verbs 《汉语动词句法语义信息词典》知识内容说明书. viii viii Preface 5. Yulin Yuan and Hong Cao 袁毓林, 曹宏. (forthcoming). An Introduction to the Syntactic- Semantic Knowledge-B ase of Chinese Adjectives 《汉语形容词句法语义信息词典》知识内容说明书. 6. Yulin Yuan and Qiang Li 袁毓林, 李强. (2014). How to use qualia struc- ture to solve the ‘tennis problem’ 怎样用物性结构知识解决“网球问题”. Journal of Chinese Information Processing 中文信息学报, 28(5), pp. 1–1 0. 7. Qiang Li and Yulin Yuan李强, 袁毓林. (2015). What kind of semantic knowledge is necessary for the semantic description and research of nouns 名词词义描写和研究需要什么样的语义学知识. Journal of Chinese Information Processing 中文信息学报, 29(5), pp. 9– 20. 8. Yulin Yuan 袁毓林. (2008). A programme of semantic resources oriented to information retrieval 面向信息检索系统的语义资源规划. Linguistic Sciences 语言科学, 32(1), pp. 1– 11. 9. Yulin Yuan, Weidong Zhan, and Chunhong Shi 袁毓林, 詹卫东, 施春宏. (2014). On the lexicon- construction interaction model of Chinese grammatical description and its application in TCSL 汉语“词库— 构式”互动的语法描写体系及其教学应用. Language Teaching and Linguistics Studies 语言教学与研究, (2), pp. 17– 25. 10. Yulin Yuan, Hong Cao, and Chengming Xie 袁毓林, 曹宏, 谢成名. (2014). Lexical ontology and its application in information retrieval 词汇本体知识及其在信息检索中的应用. Journal of Soochow University (Philosophy & Social Science Edition), (5), pp. 149– 58. 11. Xue Wei and Yulin Yuan 魏雪, 袁毓林. 2014. Towards a rule- based approach to automatic interpretation of Chinese noun compounds 基于规则的汉语名名组合的自动释义研究. Journal of Chinese Information Processing 中文信息学报, 28(3), pp. 1– 10. 12. Guoxiang Wu and Yulin Yuan 吴国向, 袁毓林. (2018). Qualia structure in text:  Its construction, translation and derivation 物性结构在文本中的创建及其翻译转换与衍化. In Lexicology: Theory and Application 词汇学理论与应用, (9), pp. 122–4 1. Beijing: Commercial Press. These 12 titles are directly related to different chapters or sections: No. 1 is the Introduction, Chapter 1 and Chapter 8; No. 2 is Chapter 2; Nos. 3, 4 and 5 are Chapter 3; Nos. 6 and 7 are Chapter 4; Nos. 8 and 9 are Chapter 5; Nos. 10 and 11 are Chapter 6; and No. 12 is Chapter 7. This research is supported by a grant from Major Research Projects for Key Research Bases of Humanities and Social Sciences of Ministry of Education (Grant No. 18JJD740003) and a grant from National Programme on Key Basic Research Project (973 Programme; Grant No. 2014CB340502). The former is titled ‘A Study on Representation and Its Computational System for Lexical Semantic Knowledge in the Framework of Chinese Paratactic Grammar’ and the latter is titled ‘The Neural Mechanism of Linguistic Cognition’. These are further endeavours on the basis of several completed programmes, including: ix Preface ix 1. ‘A Study of Chinese Lexical Ontologies Oriented to Semantic Search’, a grant from Major Research Projects for Key Research Bases of Humanities and Social Sciences of Ministry of Education (Grant No. 10JJD740008), January 2011– December 2013. 2. ‘Research in Chinese Paratactic Features and Construction of Large- Scale Knowledge Bases and Corpora in the Context of Chinese International Education’, a grant from Major Tender Projects of the National Social Science Fund of China, Grant No. 12&ZD175, October 2012– October 2017. 3. ‘Lexical Ontological Semantics:  An Empirical Exploration’, a gen- eral grant from the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation, Grant No. 2014M550535, April 2014–J une 2015. We are deeply grateful to six co-a uthors of seven articles among the 12 titles mentioned earlier for their generosity to allow us to use materials co- written by us. We would like to acknowledge our debt to: Weidong Zhan 詹卫东, Professor, Department of Chinese Language and Literature, Peking University Chunhong Shi 施春宏, Professor, College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Beijing Language and Culture University Hong Cao 曹宏, Associate Research Fellow, School of Archaeology and Museology, Peking University Chengming Xie 谢成名, Assistant Professor, School of Literature, Journalism and Communication, Minzu University of China Qiang Li 李强, Assistant Professor, College of Liberal Arts, Shanghai University Xue Wei 魏雪, postgraduate, Department of Chinese Language and Literature, Peking University We are also thankful for all those colleagues and postgraduate students who extend support and help to us in one way or another. Special thanks go to: Baobao Chang 常宝宝, Associate Professor, Institute of Computational Linguistics, Peking University Houfeng Wang 王厚峰, Professor, Institute of Computational Linguistics, Peking University Zhifang Hui 穗志方, Professor, Institute of Computational Linguistics, Peking University Yang Liu 刘扬, Associate Professor, Institute of Computational Linguistics, Peking University Shiwen Yu 俞士汶, Professor, Institute of Computational Linguistics, Peking University Ren Zhou 周韧, Professor, Department of Chinese Language and Literature, Peking University