Learning strategies and the learning-disabled adult student byPatricia Ann Hays A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment ofthe requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education Montana State University © Copyright byPatricia Ann Hays (1995) Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine whether post-secondary learning-disabled students' learning strategies changed after academic and study skills intervention during one semester ofclasses and what impact learning strategies had onadult learning. The study also identified whether there were groups of learning-disabled adult learners who think and learn in a similar manner. The data were collected from (a) the Self-Knowledge Inventory ofLifelong Learning Strategies (SKILLS), (b)the Test ofAdult Basic Education, (c) follow-up cluster focus groups, and (d) a demographic questionnaire. Learning strategies included metacognition, metamotivation, memory, critical thinking, and resource management. Learning disabilities were defined as a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested bysignificant difficulties with listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical calculations. The sample consisted of101diagnosed and suspected learning-disabled students enrolled at Montana State University College ofTechnology-Great Falls during the fall of1993.Learning strategies did not change after one semester ofacademic and study skills instruction. However, discriminant analysis indicated that male and female and diagnosed and suspected learning-disabled students learn differently due to the processes ofStructured Learning and Rigid Planning respectively. Cluster analysis revealed five distinct groups oflearners:Assisted, Hands-On, Sensitive, Persistent, and Balanced Learners. It was concluded that (a) SKILLS and learning strategies are practical tools foreducational improvement for learning-disabled students, (b) learning-disabled students generally experience academic skills deficiencies, (c) SKILLS is useful for 2-year college students, (d) gender and diagnosed/suspected learning-disabled status influence learning strategy selection, (e) short-term academic and study skills training does not change learning strategy usage, (f)distinct learning-disabled groups exist, (g)learning-disabled students need to advocate for services, and (h) learning-disabled students require accommodations in particular learning situations. Recommendations included providing special counselors, staff development for faculty, developing a learning strategies course, providing learning-disabled students with accommodations, and conducting further research related to learning disabilities, learning strategies, and academic and study skills. LEARNING STRATEGIES AND THE LEARNING-DISABLED ADULT STUDENT by Patricia Ann Hays A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, Montana April 1995 3)1 % H 33+7 ii APPROVAL of a thesis submitted by Patricia Ann Hays This thesis has been read by each member of the graduate committee and has been found to be satisfactory regarding content, English usage, format, citations, bibliographic style, and consistency, and is ready for submission to the College of Graduate Studies. Vt^-i Chairpeerrgscon,"Graduate Committee Approved for the Major Department YA/ Ifr Date Head, Major Department Approved for the College of Graduate Studies Date Graduate Dean iii STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a doctoral degree at Montana State University, I agree that the Library shall make it available to borrowers under rules of the Library. I further agree that copying of this thesis is allowable only for scholarly purposes, consistent with "fair use" as prescribed in the U.S. Copyright Law. Requests for extensive copying or reproduction of this thesis should be referred to University Microfilms International, 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106, to whom I have granted "the exclusive right to reproduce and distribute my dissertation for sale in and from microform or electronic format, along with the right to reproduce and distribute my abstract in any format in whole or in part." Signature iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deep appreciation to Dr. Gary Conti, Committee Chairperson at Montana State University, Bozeman, for his guidance and encouragement in adult learning research. I extend special thanks to committee members Dr. Robert Fellenz, Dr. Doug Herbster, Yabui, and Dr. John Sawyer for their enthusiastic support and critical questioning of my research. I would also like to express my thanks to Mr. Willard Weaver, Dean, Montana State University College of Technology-Great Falls, for his continual support and for allowing me to use the incoming students of the college in ltlY research, and to the students who volunteered to complete research questionnaires and participate in focus groups. I would especially like to thank my family for their love and neverending confidence in my abilities; to my husband Richard, whose quiet but persistent encouragement was a constant source of motivation and determination in completing this project; to my daughters, Christy and Michelle for their sacrifice of time and their understand­ ing attitudes toward my academic pursuits. I am truly blessed. V TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES vii ABSTRACT . . . viii I. INTRODUCTION I Problem Statement . . . . . . . 8 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . * 10 Research Questions...........* 11 Significance of the Study . . . 12 Definition of Terms .......... 13 Assumptions and Delimitations ! 15 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 17 Introduction .................... 17 Learning Disabilities . . . * ! . * ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 19 Learning Strategies........... * ! ! ! ! ! ! 22 Introduction .................. 22 Metacognition .................... 29 Metamotivation . . . . .......... ] 31 Memory .............. ........ 34 Critical Thinking . . . . . " ! ! ! ! ! . ' I 36 Resource Management .................... 39 Study and Academic Skills Intervention . . . . 41 3. METHODOLOGY 48 Introduction .............................. 48 The Setting....................... 49 Population............ .......... ! ! ! ! ! 53 Self-Knowledge Inventory of Lifelong Learning Strategies (SKILLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Test of Adult Basic Education (TABE) ........ 60 Procedures .............. .. 64 4. FINDINGS 66 Introduction . . 66 Participants . . 66 Procedures . . . 67 TABE Scores . . 68 SKILLS Instrument 71 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued Page Discriminant Analysis ............ 77 Discriminant Analysis with SKILLS and Gender............................ 78 Discriminant Analysis with SKILLS and Diagnosed and Suspected Learning-Disabled Students ............ 83 Cluster Analysis of SKILLS and Demographic Variables................................ 86 Cluster I: Assisted Learners ......... 93 Cluster 2: Hands-On Learners ......... 95 Cluster 3: Sensitive Learners ........... 97 Cluster 4: Persistent Learners ........ 99 Cluster 5: Balanced Learners .......... IOi 5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . 104 Summary .................................... 104 Discussion of the Findings . . .’ .* [ [ [ ] [ [ 107 TABE Assessment Scores................] 107 Pre- and Post-test SKILLS Instrument Scores ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Results of the Discriminant Analysis . . . 108 Results of the Cluster Analysis ........ 108 Conclusions................................ log TABE Scores ........................... ] 10g SKILLS and Learning Strategies . . . ... . no Academic and Study Skills Intervention . . 112 Discriminant Analysis Results ........ . 115 Cluster Analysis Results ................ 116 Recommendations................... ....-] -j.21 LITERATURE C I T E D ............. 126 APPENDICES................. 141 Appendix A— Permission to Conduct Research . . . 142 Appendix B— Student Participant Letter ........ 145 Appendix C— Intake Sheet ...................... I47 Appendix D— SKILLS Instrument and Answer Sheet . 149 Appendix E— Focus Group.Questions .............. 158 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Components of Self-Knowledge Inventory °f Lifelong Learning Strategies ................. 55 2. Individual TABE Score Ranges ................ 70 3. Means and t-tests for Learning-Disabled Groups on T A B E ................................ 71 4. Means and t-tests for SKILLS Conceptual A r e a s .......................... # 73 5. Means and t-tests for SKILLS Subscales. . . . . 73 6. Analysis of Covariance of SKILLS Post-test Scores Learning-Disabled Groups .......... „ . 75 7. Structured Learning............................. 82 8. Rigid Planning.................................. 84 9. Mean Scores for Clustering Variables.......... 91 viii ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to determine whether post-secondary learning-disabled students' learning strategies changed after academic and study skills intervention during one semester of classes and what impact learning strategies had on adult learning. The study also identified whether there were groups of learning-disabled adult learners who think and learn in a similar manner. The data were collected from (a) the Self-Knowledge Inventory of Lifelong Learning Strategies (SKILLS), (b) the Test of Adult Basic Education, (c) follow-up cluster focus groups, and (d) a demographic questionnaire. Learning s included metacognition, metamotivation, memory cri^ical thinking, and resource management. Learning disabilities were defined as a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties W1^ listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical calculations. The sample consisted of 101 diagnosed and suspected learning-disabled students enrolled at Montana State University College of Technology-Great Falls during the fall of 1993. Learning strategies did not change after one semester of academic and study skills instruction. However, discriminant analysis indicated that maie and female and diagnosed and suspected learning-disabled students learn differently due to the processes of Structured Learning and Rigid Planning respectively. Cluster analysis revealed five distinct groups of learners: Assisted, Hands- On, Sensitive, Persistent, and Balanced Learners. It was concluded that (a) SKILLS and learning strategies are practical tools for educational improvement for learning-disabled students, (b) learning-disabled students generally experience academic skills deficiencies, (c) SKILLS is useful for 2-year college students, (d) gender and diagnosed/suspected learning-disabled status influence learning strategy selection, (e) short-term academic and study skills training does not change learning strategy usage, (f) distinct learning—disabled groups exist, (g) learning-disabled students need to advocate for services, and (h) learning—disabled students require accommodations in particular learning situations. Recommendations included providing special counselors, staff development for faculty, developing a learning strategies course, providing learning—disabled students with accommodations, and conducting further research related to learning disabilities, learning strategies, and academic and study skills. I CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The goal of adult education should be life fulfillment. If this is indeed a goal, then ^■^ult educators should be involved in meeting the needs of the learning disabled adult. (Stubblefield, 1981, p. 12) It is no secret that the problems learning^disabled individuals face in education are enormous. Traditionally, these individuals perform poorly in the post—secondary education setting. Many factors contribute to this such as an early history of academic problems in school or cognitive delay (Cranney, 1983), behavioral problems (Gilmore, 1975; Matson, 1988), socioeconomic factors (LaBuda, DeFries, & Pennington, 1990), educationally disadvantaged backgrounds where intervention services were not available or students were taught only basic, essential academics (Harrington, 1982), a lack of adequate study and time management skills (Maugrum & Strichart, 1984), and poor self-esteem (Neault, 1983; Polloway, Smith, & Patton, 1983; Shaw et al., 1989). Writers such as Alley and Deshler (1979) have stressed that as learning-disabled children reach adolescence, the educational focus and the types of services they receive mus^- change. The need for such change becomes even more