The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School Department of Learning and Performance Systems LEARNING LIVES OF YOUNG ADULT NORTH KOREAN DEFECTORS: IDENTITY RECONSTRUCTION WITHIN EVERYDAY LIFE A Dissertation in Lifelong Learning and Adult Education by Hyewon Park © 2016 Hyewon Park Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy December, 2016 ii The dissertation of Hyewon Park was reviewed and approved* by the following: Fred M. Schied Associate Professor of Education Dissertation Advisor Chair of Committee Davin J. Carr-Chellman Assistant Professor of Education Adnan Qayyum Assistant Professor of Education Soo-yong Byun Associate Professor of Education Susan M. Land Associate Professor of Education Director of Graduate Studies for the Department of Learning & Performance Systems *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii Abstract There has been a rapid increase in the number of North Korean defectors (NKDs) entering South Korea, and the remarkable trend of NKDs is their demographic transition; the defectors in their 20s and 30s now constitute a majority among NKDs in South Korea. In this sense, this study aims to explore North Korean young adult defectors’ (referred to here as “North Korean Millennials”; NKMs) identity reconstruction process within their daily activities in South Korea. Using Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) as a theoretical framework, this study provided the analysis of how NKMs interact with sociocultural and historical mediations, reconstructing their identity in particular within their daily life activities and how they learn from the activities. An ethnographic approach was used to examine 11 NKMs’ daily activities to reconstruct identity in the South. This study identified four activities of NKMs within their everyday life in the South for reconstructing identities: the adaptation activity, the enculturation activity, the self- development activity, and the reunification preparation activity. As the outcomes of the daily activities in this study, the NKM participants reconstructed their identity as the active learner, independent and confident person, scaffolding for next NKD generation, and mediator and contributor for preparing reunification. By establishing their identities and roles, they made plans and goals for their future life and career within the wide consideration of national development. This study concluded with academic and practical implications and suggestions. iv Table of Contents List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vi List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. vii Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 Coming to the Question ............................................................................................................ 1 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 4 Purpose of the Study and Research Questions .......................................................................... 7 Definitions of Terms ................................................................................................................. 9 North Korean Millennials (NKMs) ..................................................................................... 9 Activities ........................................................................................................................... 10 Objects .............................................................................................................................. 10 Contradictions ................................................................................................................... 10 Overview of Dissertation ........................................................................................................ 11 Chapter 2 Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 12 Overview of North Korean Defectors ..................................................................................... 12 The Process of Defection .................................................................................................. 12 Resettlement in South Korea ............................................................................................ 14 Challenges of NKDs in South Korea ................................................................................ 15 The Present Condition of NKDs in South Korea .............................................................. 18 North Korean Millennials ................................................................................................. 19 Differences between Adult North Koreans and North Korean Millennials ...................... 20 Understanding Identity ............................................................................................................ 22 The Intrinsic Features of Identity ...................................................................................... 23 Critical Review of the Literature on Identity in Adult Education .................................... 26 Sociocultural Perspectives on Identity Construction ........................................................ 29 Comparative Case: Identity Issues in The German Precedent .......................................... 31 Chapter 3 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................ 35 Cultural-Historical Activity Theory as the Theoretical Framework ....................................... 35 Activity Systems ............................................................................................................... 36 Three Generations of Development .................................................................................. 39 Contradictions ................................................................................................................... 45 Learning in CHAT .................................................................................................................. 48 Chapter 4 Research Design ........................................................................................................ 52 Ethnographic Approach .......................................................................................................... 52 Methodological Appropriateness ...................................................................................... 52 Data Collection ....................................................................................................................... 54 Sampling and Recruitment ................................................................................................ 54 Participants Profiles .......................................................................................................... 56 Building Rapport with NKMs ........................................................................................... 60 Collecting Data ................................................................................................................. 62 Researcher Identity ................................................................................................................. 72 v Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 74 Chapter 5 Findings ..................................................................................................................... 77 The Early Activities of NKMs for Identity Reconstruction .................................................... 80 The Adaptation Activity ................................................................................................... 80 The Enculturation Activity ............................................................................................... 87 Contradictions in the Early Activities ..................................................................................... 90 Different Sociocultural and Historical Backgrounds ........................................................ 92 Structural Malfunction of Government System ................................................................ 99 Contradictory Situations Living as a NKD in South Korean Society ............................. 101 Learning and Identity Reconstruction in the Early Activities .............................................. 110 Learning South Korean Social Culture ........................................................................... 111 Establishing Strategies to Be Well Adjusted .................................................................. 112 Changing the Ways of Social Interaction ....................................................................... 115 Expanding the Perspectives on Life ................................................................................ 118 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 124 The Latter Activities of NKMs for Identity Reconstruction ................................................. 126 The Self-development Activity ....................................................................................... 126 The Reunification Preparation Activity .......................................................................... 131 The Contradictions in the Latter Activities ........................................................................... 145 The Contradictions in the Self-development Activity .................................................... 145 The Contradictions in the Reunification Preparation Activity ....................................... 150 Learning and Identity Reconstruction in the Latter Activities .............................................. 153 Learning and Identity Reconstruction in the Self-development Activity ....................... 153 Learning and Identity Reconstruction in the Reunification Preparation Activity .......... 158 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 161 Chapter 6 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ............................................................ 164 Reconstructing Identity as Continuous Process .................................................................... 164 CHAT as the Useful Theoretical Framework to Examine the Process of Identity Reconstruction in Adult Education Field .............................................................................. 167 NKMs as Active Subjects of Learning in South Korea ........................................................ 168 Implications and Suggestions ............................................................................................... 171 References .................................................................................................................................. 174 Appendix A: Semi-Structured Interview Protocol ................................................................ 190 Appendix B: Informed Consent Form .................................................................................... 192 Appendix C: Examples of Proofreading Korean-English Translation ................................ 195 Appendix D: An Example of Initial and Focused Coding ..................................................... 199 vi List of Tables Table 1 Participants profile ......................................................................................................... 56 Table 2 A sample of participation observation on field notes ..................................................... 65 Table 3 A follow-up question sample of the interview transcripts ............................................... 68 Table 4 Interview place, date and time ........................................................................................ 70 Table 5 Summary of activity, action and object/motive ............................................................... 79 vii List of Figures Figure 1. Escape Route of NKDs (retrieved September 9, 2015 from http://www.nkhrrescuefund.org/who-we-help.html) ............................................................ 14 Figure 2. The Tendency of NKD Annual Entry (Ministry of Unification, 2015) ........................ 18 Figure 3. Vygotsky’s model of mediated act and its common reformulation (Engeström, 2001, p. 134) ....................................................................................................................................... 40 Figure 4. Model of a human activity system (Engeström, 1987, Chapter 2, para. 1562) ............. 43 Figure 5. Two Interacting Activity System as Minimal Model for the Third Generation of Activity Theory (Engeström, 2001, p. 136) .......................................................................... 45 Figure 6. Four levels of contradictions within the human activity system (Engeström, 1987, Ch 2. Para. 1914) ........................................................................................................................ 46 Figure 7. Adaptation activity ........................................................................................................ 86 Figure 8. Enculturation activity .................................................................................................... 90 Figure 9. The early activity system network .............................................................................. 125 Figure 10. Self-development activity ......................................................................................... 131 Figure 11. Reunification preparation activity ............................................................................. 145 Figure 12. The latter activity system network ............................................................................ 163 1 Chapter 1 Introduction Coming to the Question After completing the first challenging year of my Ph.D. courses, I went back to Korea during summer break and met a friend who works at an alternative school for North Korean defectors (NKDs) as a career guidance teacher. I visited the school and met five young students from North Korea. It was the first time I met people from the North. I could be amused at talking with them by sharing a lot of common experiences living as expatriates, because I am a stranger too as an international student in U.S. In particular, we developed a bond of sympathy while sharing the sense of being a stranger in new living situations. I came to somewhat imagine their lives in South Korea, but I felt that there were obvious distinctions between me and them. That is, most of my challenges living in the United States are fundamentally caused by language and cultural differences, but their challenges stem from additional reasons. My issues could be resolved by learning English and U.S. culture, but their issues did not seem so simple. Although South and North Korea have the same root of language, history, and cultural background as the Korean race, Hanminjok, I realized that there is something more that adds to their difficulties living in South Korea, beyond language or cultural differences. One of the students gave me an insight about the cause of their difficulties. He said: Sometimes people asked me how I think about myself whether I regard myself as a South Korean or a North Korean. What a ridiculous question! Why is it so important about my perception, either a South Korean or a North Korean? I am just who I am. 2 It was closely related to the issue of identity. However, it is not just national or ethnic identity that the North Korean student wanted to be recognized and indicated about himself. His comment overlapped with my reflection while I talked with the young NKD friends. One of the impressions I received from the conversation was that the young NKD students sincerely longed for friends who would listen to their stories and accept them just the way they are. It was NKDs’ identity, revealed from their behaviors within ordinary lives, that intrigued me. I wondered how NKDs reconstruct their identity within daily lives in South Korea by interacting within the South Korean social context and how they learn from the process of identity reconstruction. By seeing their everyday life, I would like to examine the aspects of how NKDs learned about themselves. It led me to inquire into the process of NKDs’ identity reconstruction and learning, through their social interactions in South Korea. I began to meet diverse North Korean friends. One day, as one of my friends saw what I was doing, he seriously asked me a question: “Isn’t what you are doing dangerous? You need to be careful! They [North Korean defectors] could be spies.” I couldn’t say anything for a while after I was questioned; I had never thought about the issue, so I did not know how I react to his question. He really seemed worried about me. Interestingly, he was not the only person who had suspicions the about NKDs around me. Even though many people encouraged me while they listened to my research topic, not everyone did. An acquaintance said, I don’t like North Korean. They always attack us first and exert ingenuity to develop nuclear weapons with money we sent for aiding food shortage. Why I have to spend my money to support the jerk? I don’t want to pay my tax to help them! His words revealed how South Korean people reflect the hostile image from the North Korean government’s provocative behaviors toward ordinary North Korean people and even NKDs who 3 officially became South Korean citizens. Many South Koreans tend to hold unfavorable opinions about them with secondhand information even though they have never met North Koreans personally. These two anecdotes show how NKDs are perceived in South Korea. The North and the South are technically at war. The divided situation between the North and the South has been maintained for 70 years. In a confrontation between the North and the South, the political opinions and approaches to North Korea are always critical issues in South Korean political parties. In terms of the history of South Korean government approaches to North Korea, the South Korean government has implemented various approaches to North Korea ranging from outright hostility to the sunshine policy. In the 1960s, South Koreans were even taught that North Koreans were a red monster, a teaching that promoted anti-communism. In 1997, however, the policy direction towards North Korea was completely changed to rapprochement by aiding with food and developing an industrial complex. While it showed the peace-building possibility between the North and the South, this also provided a negative impression to South Koreans that North Koreans desperately need economic assistance from them. Also, the conscripted military service in South Korea affects the perceptions South Koreans have toward North Korea. In military service, South Korean soldiers are trained that the North Korean government and North Korean army are their main enemies. Indeed, most military personnel are assigned in the area around the truce line. From these factors, South Koreans tend to not only have political and military antagonism but also feel difference toward the North. In addition, several incidents provoked and attacked by North Korean government, such as the sinking of the Cheonanham in which 46 sailors were killed by a North Korean torpedo and bombardment of Yeonpyeong when North Korean forces fired approximately 170 artillery shells and rockets at Yeonpyeong Island,