LC-MS/MS Analysis of Pharmaceuticals in the Irish Aquatic Environment and the Potential for Human Exposure Gillian McEneff, B.Sc. Student No.: 10109552 Under the supervision of: Dr. Brian Quinn Dr. Brian Kelleher Prof. Brett Paull School of Chemical Sciences Dublin City University A thesis submitted for consideration for the award of: Doctor of Philosophy January 2014 Declaration I hereby certify that this material, which I now submit for assessment on the programme of study leading to the award of Doctor of Philosophy is entirely my own work, that I have exercised reasonable care to ensure that the work is original, and does not to the best of my knowledge breach any law of copyright, and has not been taken from the work of others save and to the extent that such work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of my work. Signed: ______________________ (Candidate) ID No.: __________________ Date: ________________ ii Table of Contents Section Page (i) Abstract ................................................................................................. vii (ii) Acknowledgements .............................................................................. viii (iii) List of Publications and Conference Presentations ................................. ix (iv) List of Figures ....................................................................................... xii (v) List of Tables ......................................................................................... xiv (vi) List of Equations ................................................................................... xvi (vii) List of Abbreviations ........................................................................... xvii 1.0 General Introduction ............................................................................. 1 1.1 Pharmaceuticals as Environmental Pollutants .......................................... 2 1.2 Sources of Pharmaceuticals in the Aquatic Environment ........................ 5 1.3 Drug Metabolism ...................................................................................... 6 1.4 The Wastewater Treatment Process ......................................................... 8 1.5 Pharmaceuticals in the Wastewater Treatment Process ......................... 11 1.6 Pharmaceutical Fate in the Environment ................................................ 14 1.7 Pharmaceutical Occurrence in the Aquatic Environment ...................... 16 1.7.1 Surface water ........................................................................... 16 1.7.2 Aquatic biota ........................................................................... 18 1.8 Environmental Risk Assessment and Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals .. 20 1.9 Pharmaceutical Exposure to Humans ..................................................... 23 1.10 Pharmaceutical Analysis of Environmental Samples ............................. 24 1.10.1 Water analysis ......................................................................... 25 1.10.2 Biota analysis .......................................................................... 30 1.11 Conceptual Framework .......................................................................... 31 References .............................................................................................. 33 2.0 A Year-Long Study of the Spatial Occurrence and Relative Distribution of Pharmaceutical Residues in the Aquatic Environment using PLE and SPE with LC-MS/MS ......................... 52 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 55 2.2 Experimental .......................................................................................... 58 iii 2.2.1 Reagents and chemicals .......................................................... 58 2.2.2 Sampling locations, procedures and experimental conditions ................................................................................ 58 2.2.3 Sample pre-treatment, extraction and clean-up ...................... 61 2.2.3.1 Glassware preparation and silanisation .............. 61 2.2.3.2 Effluent and marine surface water ....................... 62 2.2.3.3 Marine mussels ..................................................... 62 2.2.4 Instrumental conditions ........................................................... 63 2.2.5 Method performance ............................................................... 64 2.3 Results and Discussion ........................................................................... 65 2.3.1 Sample preparation ................................................................. 65 2.3.2 Analytical method development............................................... 67 2.3.3 Instrumental and method performance ................................... 69 2.3.4 Application to sewage effluent, marine surface waters and caged Mytilus spp. exposed along the Irish coast ................... 73 2.3.4.1 Wastewater effluent .............................................. 73 2.3.4.2 Marine surface water ........................................... 76 2.3.4.3 Marine mussels ..................................................... 78 2.4 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 80 References .......................................................................................................... 81 3.0 The Potential for Bioaccumulation of Pharmaceuticals in Juvenile Rainbow Trout via Dietary Exposure using PLE and SPE with LC-MS/MS .................................................................... 87 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 90 3.2 Experimental .......................................................................................... 92 3.2.1 Reagents and chemicals .......................................................... 92 3.2.2 Sampling and experimental design ......................................... 93 3.2.3 Food preparation and feeding ................................................. 96 3.2.4 Sample pre-treatment, extraction and clean-up ...................... 97 3.2.4.1 Glassware preparation and silanisation .............. 97 3.2.4.2 Carbon filtered municipal water .......................... 97 3.2.4.3 Marine mussels ..................................................... 97 3.2.4.4 Fish liver ............................................................... 97 iv 3.2.4.5 Fish fillet ............................................................... 98 3.2.5 Instrumental conditions ........................................................... 98 3.2.6 Method performance ............................................................... 98 3.3 Results and Discussion ........................................................................... 99 3.3.1 Fish liver sample preparation ................................................. 99 3.3.2 Instrumental and analytical method performance ................ 100 3.3.3 Application to marine mussels sampled from a wastewater effluent exposure site ............................................................. 103 3.3.4 Application to fish tissues collected from juvenile rainbow trout feeding on contaminated marine mussel tissue for 28 days ................................................................................... 104 3.4 Conclusions .......................................................................................... 107 References ............................................................................................ 108 4.0 The Determination of Pharmaceutical Residues in Cooked and Uncooked Marine Bivalves using PLE and SPE with LC-MS/MS .......................................................................................... 111 4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 114 4.2 Experimental ........................................................................................ 116 4.2.1 Reagents and chemicals ........................................................ 116 4.2.2 Sampling and experimental design ....................................... 116 4.2.3 Sample pre-treatment, extraction and clean-up .................... 119 4.2.3.1 Glassware preparation and silanisation ............ 119 4.2.3.2 Artificial seawater .............................................. 119 4.2.3.2 Marine mussels ................................................... 119 4.2.4 Instrumental conditions ......................................................... 120 4.2.5 Method performance ............................................................. 120 4.3 Results and Discussion ......................................................................... 121 4.3.1 Instrumental and analytical method performance ................ 121 4.3.2 Application to marine mussels exposed in vivo via direct injection or water exposure ................................................... 123 4.3.3 Effect of cooking on pharmaceutical residues in marine mussel tissue .......................................................................... 127 4.4 Conclusions .......................................................................................... 131 v References ............................................................................................ 132 5.0 Final Conclusions and Future Work ................................................ 138 5.1 Summary .............................................................................................. 139 5.2 Final Conclusions ................................................................................. 142 5.2.1 Distribution of pharmaceuticals in the Irish aquatic environment ........................................................................... 142 5.2.2 Uptake of pharmaceuticals in non-target aquatic biota ....... 143 5.2.3 The use of sample extraction and mass spectrometry in the analysis of pharmaceuticals in environmental matrices ....... 144 5.2.4 Risk assessment ..................................................................... 145 5.3 Future Work ......................................................................................... 147 References ........................................................................................................ 150 Appendix ............................................................................................................. I vi Abstract Reports concerning the quantitative analysis of pharmaceuticals in marine ecosystems are somewhat limited. It is necessary to determine pharmaceutical fate and assess any potential risk of exposure to aquatic species and ultimately, seafood consumers. However, in Ireland very little research has been carried out to determine the presence of pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment. The research carried out investigates the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the Irish aquatic environment and their potential to bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms and pose a risk to human health via dietary intake. Pharmaceutical residues were determined in liquid matrices, such as wastewater effluent, marine surface water (MSW) and artificial seawater (ASW), using solid phase extraction (SPE) in combination with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC- MS/MS). Pharmaceutical extraction from marine mussels and fish tissues required an additional pressurised liquid extraction (PLE) step prior to SPE and LC-MS/MS. The results of an in situ study, in which caged Mytilus spp. were deployed at three sites on the Irish coastline over a 1-year period are presented. All of the selected pharmaceuticals were quantified in wastewater effluent and marine surface waters and three out of the five monitored pharmaceuticals were detected in environmentally exposed mussel tissue. The potential for pharmaceutical bioaccumulation in fish via trophic level transfer was investigated. A 28-day in vivo experiment was carried out in a flow- through system in which rainbow trout were fed wild marine mussels sampled from one of the most contaminated sites in Ireland. Although low-level residues of trimethoprim were detected in the mussel tissues, no bioaccumulation was reported for this drug or any of the other selected compounds in the liver of the exposed fish. The effect of steaming on the concentrations of five pharmaceutical residues in exposed mussel tissue was investigated in an attempt to assess the potential risk of exposure to humans via ingestion of contaminated seafood. An in vivo experiment was carried out exposing marine mussels to pharmaceutical concentrations via direct injection and water uptake. A selection of water-exposed mussels were cooked (via steaming) resulting in a significant increase of parent pharmaceutical concentrations in the bivalves. vii Acknowledgements This research was carried out as part of the Science, Technology, Research and Innovation for the Environment (STRIVE) Programme which is funded by the Irish Government under the National Development Plan 2007-2013 and administered on behalf of the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government by the Environmental Protection Agency. This research was also partly funded by the Science Foundation of Ireland (Grant Number 08/SRC/B1412). I would like to thank Dr. Brian Quinn and Prof. Brett Paull for providing me with the opportunity to be a part of such great research groups such as the ICET and the ISSC and for the opportunity to travel to many domestic and international conferences throughout my studies. I would also like to thank Dr. Brian Kelleher and Dr. Leon Barron for their input and their much appreciated support and advice. Dr. Wiebke Schmidt is also acknowledged for her help and advice throughout this work. Kind thanks to Lynn Vanhaecke and Julie Kiebooms for their hospitality expressed when visiting Ghent University in Belgium. Thanks to Iarfhlaidh Connellan, Edward Grant, Thomas Cleary, Robert Hernan, Liam Morrison, Kathleen O’Rourke, Martina Mulligan and Rachel McArdle for their help with experimental set-up and sample collection. A big thank you to all the ISSC, School of Chemical Sciences and NCSR staff members and technicians, especially Stephen Fuller and Maurice Burke. Thanks to everyone who has come and gone through the ISSC - Patrick, Orla, Amy, Ruth, Sara, Sinead, Ali, Disha, Mercedes, Damian, Katya, Dave, Lily, Ugis, Aymen and finally Nicola, who was a great support and friend throughout. I would also like to thank all those in the School of Chemical Sciences and Biotechnology. Finally, a special thank you to all my great friends and my entire family especially my Mum, Johnny, Dad, Katie and Al for their constant love, support and encouragement. viii List of Publications and Conference Presentations Publications Schmidt, W., Rainville, L.C., McEneff, G., Sheehan, D., Quinn, B. (2013) A proteomic evaluation of the effects of the pharmaceuticals diclofenac and gemfibrozil on marine mussels (Mytilus spp.): evidence for chronic sublethal effects on stress-response proteins. Drug Testing and Analysis. DOI: 10.1002/dta.1463. McEneff, G., Barron, L., Kelleher, B., Paull, B., Quinn, B. (2013) The determination of pharmaceutical residues in cooked and uncooked marine bivalves using pressurised liquid extraction, solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry’, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 405, 9509-9521. McEneff, G., Barron, L., Kelleher, B., Paull, B., Quinn, B. A year-long study of the spatial occurrence and relative distribution of pharmaceutical residues in sewage effluent, receiving marine waters and marine bivalves, Science of the Total Environment. Accepted December 2013. Oral presentations McEneff, G., Barron, L., Kelleher, B., Paull, B., Quinn, B. LC-MS/MS analysis of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. The 22nd Irish Environmental Researchers Colloquim, University College Dublin, Ireland, 7th-9th March 2012. McEneff, G., Barron, L., Kelleher, B., Paull, B., Quinn, B. LC-MS/MS analysis of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. RSC/ChromSoc Advances in Clinical Analysis, Guy’s Hospital Tower, London, UK, 30th October 2012. (Invited Speaker) ix McEneff, G., Barron, L., Kelleher, B., Paull, B., Quinn, B. LC-MS/MS analysis of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. Irish Mass Spectrometry Society (IMSS) Conference, Red Cow Hotel Dublin, Ireland, 1st May 2013. Poster Presentations McEneff, G., Schmidt, W., Quinn, B. A comparative in situ study on ecotoxicological effects of pharmaceuticals in Ireland. 8th Annual EPA Postgraduate Seminar, The Conference Centre Dublin, Ireland, 11th November 2010. McEneff, G., Schmidt, W., Barron, L., Paull, B., Quinn, B. Solid phase extraction and LC-MS/MS analysis of pharmaceutical and personal care products in the Irish aquatic environment and their potential to bioconcentrate. Conference on Analytical Sciences, Ireland (CASi), Dublin City University, Ireland, 21st-22nd February 2011. McEneff, G., Schmidt, W., Barron, L., Paull, B., Kelleher, B., Quinn, B. Solid phase extraction and LC-MS/MS analysis of pharmaceutical and personal care products in the Irish aquatic environment. Instrumental Methods of Analysis – Modern Trends and Applications (IMA), MAICh Conference Centre, Chania, Crete, Greece, 18th-22nd September 2011. McEneff, G., Kellleher, B., Barron, L., Paull, B., Quinn, B., Solid phase extraction and LC-MS/MS analysis of pharmaceuticals in the Irish aquatic environment. 9th Annual EPA Postgraduate Seminar, The Conference Centre Dublin, Ireland, 17th November 2011. McEneff, G., Schmidt, W., Barron, L., Paull, B., Kelleher, B., Quinn, B. Solid phase extraction and LC-MS/MS analysis of pharmaceuticals in the Irish aquatic environment. 6th Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) World Congress, Estrel Hotel Berlin, Germany, 20th-24th May 2012. x