Table Of Content

The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges, by George M. Lane This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: A Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges Author: George M. Lane Editor: Morris H. Morgan Release Date: January 20, 2014 [EBook #44653] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LATIN GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS, COLLEGES *** Produced by Louise Hope, Andrew Wainwright, Alicia Williams and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net Typographical errors are shown with mouse-hover popups, and are listed again at the end of the e-text. Some apparent errors are “ghosts” of the first edition; see endnote. In the Index, missing or incorrect punctuation has been silently regularized. The appendix includes some fairly specialized content, notably under Numerals and Prosody. If you are dissatisfied with your device’s display, you may prefer the PDF file covering these sections. Preface Table of Contents Sections 1-179: Sounds Sections 180-396: Formation Sections 397-712: Inflection of Nouns Sections 713-1022: Inflection of Verbs Sections 1023-1713: Sentences Sections 1714-2299: Complex Sentences Sections 2300-2745: Appendix Index of Subjects Index of Latin Words Advertising A LATIN GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, BY GEORGE M. LANE, PH.D., LL.D. PROFESSOR EMERITUS OF LATIN IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY REVISED EDITION NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Copyright, 1898, 1903, by Gardiner M. Lane and Louisa Van Rensselaer. All rights reserved. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. George Martin Lane died on the thirtieth of June, 1897. His Latin Grammar, in the preparation of which he had been engaged, during the intervals of teaching in Harvard University, for nearly thirty years, was at that time approaching completion. The first two hundred and ninety-one pages had been stereotyped; the pages immediately following, on the Relative Sentence and the Conjunctive Particle Sentence through quod and quia (pages 292-302), together with the chapter on the Infinitive (pages 374-386), were ready for stereotyping; of the remainder of the book, pages 303-373 and 387-436 were in the form of a first draught; finally, he had received a few weeks before his death, but had never examined, the manuscript of the chapter on Versification (pages 442-485), written at his invitation by his former pupil, Dr. Herman W. Hayley, now of Wesleyan University. It was found that my dear and honoured master had left a written request that his work should be completed by me, in consultation with his colleagues, Professors Frederic De Forest Allen and Clement Lawrence Smith. A month had scarcely passed when scholars everywhere had another heavy loss to mourn in the sudden death of Professor Allen. Almost immediately afterwards, Professor Smith left this country, to take charge for a year of the American School of Classical Studies in Rome, but not before we had agreed that circumstances required the early publication of the book, notwithstanding his absence. I was thus deprived of two eminent counsellors, whose knowledge and experience would have been of inestimable assistance. About one hundred and twenty pages (303-373 and 387-436), exclusive of Versification, were yet to receive their final form. Professor Lane had determined the order in which the topics contained in these pages should be treated, and no change has been made in that order. Most of the main principles of syntax, too, have been left exactly as they were expressed in his draught. This draught was written some years ago, and, although he had corrected and annotated it from time to time, there is no doubt that in writing it out afresh he would have made many alterations and improvements which are not indicated in his notes. Consequently, he is not to be held responsible for errors and omissions in the pages which had not received his final approval. Yet I conceived it my duty to preserve, so far as possible, the very language of his corrected draught; and this, in the statement of almost all the main principles, I have been able to do. Some modifications and some radical alterations were inevitable; in particular, the treatment of quamvis, quando, quin, the Supine, and Numerals seemed to call for much amplification and rearrangement. I have also deemed it necessary to add some seventy sections* under various heads, and Dr. Hayley has been good enough to write sections 2458-2510, which precede his chapter on Versification. But, in general, my principal function has been: first, to provide additional Latin examples of the principles which Professor Lane had formulated; secondly, to enter, under the various principles, historical statements regarding the usage in the Latin writers, drawn from the best authorities at my disposal. Professor Lane’s own method was far from that of a compiler. He took nothing for granted without thorough investigation, however well established it might seem, and he followed the dictum of no man, however widely accepted as an authority. For example, his many pupils and correspondents will remember how untiring he was in his efforts to arrive at accuracy in even the minutest points of inflection. Thus, for the List of Verbs (§§ 922-1022), he made entirely new collections, and admitted no form among the ‘principal parts’ unless actually found represented in the authors. In the details of syntax, he was equally indefatigable; the sections on the Locative Proper (1331-1341), for instance, contain the result of an immense amount of painful research. He devoted much anxious thought to the definitions and the titles of the various constructions: thus, the distinction between the Present of Vivid Narration (1590) and the Annalistic Present (1591) seems obvious now that it is stated; but to reach it many pages of examples were collected and compared. He held that examples printed in the grammar to illustrate syntactical principles should never be manufactured; they should be accurately quoted from the authors, without other alteration than the omission of words by which the construction under illustration was not affected. He was careful, also, not to use an example in which there was any serious doubt as to the text in that part which covered the principle illustrated by the example. To ‘Hidden Quantity’ he had given much attention, and many of the results of his studies in this subject were published, in 1889, in the School Dictionary by his friend Dr. Lewis. Since that time he had found reason to change his views with regard to some words, and these changes are embodied in the present book, in which he marked every vowel which he believed to be long in quantity. The order in which the divisions and subdivisions of grammar are here presented will not seem strange to those who are acquainted with the recent grammars published by Germans. It is the scientific order of presentation, whatever order a teacher may think fit to follow in his actual practice. The table of contents has been made so full as to serve as a v vi vii systematic exposition of the scheme, and to make needless any further words upon it here. In the Appendix Professor Lane would have inserted, out of deference to custom, a chapter on the Arrangement of Words; but the draught of it which he left was too fragmentary for publication. Since the proper preparation of the chapter would have greatly delayed the publication of the book, it was thought best to omit it altogether, at least for the present. This topic, in fact, like some others in the Appendix, belongs rather to a treatise on Latin Composition than to a Latin Grammar. For the indexes, and for much valuable help in proof reading, I heartily thank Dr. J. W. Walden, another of Professor Lane’s pupils. In the course of his work, Professor Lane frequently consulted his colleagues and other distinguished scholars both in this country and in Europe. He gratefully welcomed their advice, and carefully considered and often adopted their suggestions. Had he lived to write a preface, he would doubtless have thanked by name those to whom he considered himself as under particular obligation, whether from direct correspondence or through the use of their published works; but it is obvious that the information in my possession will not allow me to attempt this pleasant duty. Of Professor Lane’s pupils, also, not a few, while in residence as advanced students at the University, were from time to time engaged in the collection of material which he used in the grammar. They, like his other helpers, must now be content with the thought of the courteous acknowledgment which they would have received from him. MORRIS H. MORGAN. Harvard University, Cambridge, May, 1898. * The sections which I have added are as follows: 1866, 1873, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1887, 1890, 1901, 1902, 1903, 1907, 1909, 1913, 1922, 1927, 1935, 1964, 1975, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1989, 1990, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2068, 2086, 2088, 2097, 2111, 2122, 2152, 2155, 2255, 2264, 2267, 2271, 2273, 2275, 2276, 2277, 2281, 2289, 2292, 2345, 2357, 2400, 2406, 2407, 2408, 2409, 2410, 2411, 2412, 2413, 2414, 2740- 2745. PREFATORY NOTE TO THE REVISED EDITION. In this Revised Edition many changes and corrections in details have been introduced throughout the book, but no alterations have been made in the treatment of broad general principles, except in the chapter on Sound (§§ 16-179). This has been very largely rewritten and extended from nineteen to thirty-one pages by my friend, Professor Hanns Oertel, of Yale University, who has also been kind enough to make the changes in the chapters on Formation and Inflection rendered necessary by his rewriting of the sections on Sound. In this rewriting Mr. Oertel has proceeded upon the ideas that in a school grammar, even an advanced one, phonology should play a subordinate part; that nothing should be introduced that cannot be illustrated from such Latin and Greek as are available to the student; and that those points should be emphasized which assist in the analyzing of compounds and in the understanding of word-formation and inflection. With these ideas, which necessarily prevent the introduction of some important topics treated in works on phonetics, I am in entire sympathy. My thanks are due to not a few scholars and reviewers who have pointed out passages in the first edition which in their opinion called for changes. Some of their suggestions I have adopted; with others I have found myself unable to agree. M. H. M. Harvard University, Cambridge, May, 1903. viii ix TABLE OF CONTENTS. THE REFERENCES ARE TO SECTIONS. Parts of Latin Grammar, 1. PART FIRST: WORDS, 2-1022. Parts of Speech, 2-15. (A.) SOUND, 16-179. Alphabet, 16-30. Sources of our Pronunciation, 31. Vowels, 32-46. Long and Short, 33-36. Pronunciation, 37-42. Classification, 43-46. Diphthongs, 47-50. Nature and Kinds, 47, 48. Pronunciation, 49, 50. Consonants, 51-81. Pronunciation, 51-72. Classification, 73-81. Syllabic and Unsyllabic Function, 82, 83. Accent, 84-98. Nature, 84. Marks of Accent, 85. The Classical Accent, 86-88. Earlier Recessive Accent, 89-91. Proclitics and Enclitics, 92-94. Change of Sound, 95-174. Vowel Change: Of Diphthongs, 95-101; 108. Of Simple Vowels, 102-107. Loss, 110-113. Hiatus, 114-116. Synizesis, 117. Contraction, 118. Elision, 119. Combination into Diphthongs, 120. Lengthening, 121-123. Shortening, 124-132. Transfer of Quantity, 133. Variation, 134. Quantitative Vowel Gradation, 135. Qualitative Vowel Changes, 136-143. Assimilation, 144. Qualitative Vowel Gradation, 145. Consonant Change: Disappearance or Change of Single Consonants, 146-161. Change in Consonant Groups, 162-179. Assimilation, 163-166. Consonantal Glides, 167. Disappearance, 168-171. Development of Anaptyctical Vowel, 172. Dissimilation, 173. Changes within Compounds, 174. Syllables, 175-179. Defined, 175, 176. Length of Syllables, 177, 178. Loss, 179. (B.) FORMATION, 180-396. Definitions, 180-198. Roots, 183-189. Present Stems as Roots, 190-194. Stems, 195-197. Primitives and Denominatives, 198. Formation of the Noun, 199-364. Without a Formative Suffix, 199. Formative Suffixes, 200-203. Formation of the Substantive: Primitives, 204-245. Denominatives, 246-279. Formation of the Adjective: Primitives, 280-297. Denominatives, 298-341. Comparison, 342-364. Formation of Denominative Verbs, 365-375. Composition, 376-396. Of Nouns, 379-390. Of Verbs, 391-396. (C.) INFLECTION, 397-1022. Definition, 397. (A.) INFLECTION OF THE NOUN, 398-712. General Principles, 398-431. Case Endings, 398. The Stem, 399-401. Gender, 402-413. Number, 414-418. Case, 419-431. The Substantive, 432-607. Stems in -ā- (The First Declension), 432-445. Stems in -o- (The Second Declension), 446-466. Consonant Stems (The Third Declension), 467-512. Stems in -i- (The Third Declension), 513-569. Gender of Consonant Stems and -i- Stems, 570-584. Stems in -u- (The Fourth Declension), 585-595. Stems in -ē- (The Fifth Declension), 596-607. xi xii The Adjective, 608-643. Stems in -o- and -ā-, 613-620. Consonant Stems, 621-626. Stems in -i-, 627-636. Numeral Adjectives, 637-643. The Pronoun, 644-695. Personal and Reflexive, 644-651. Personal and Reflexive Possessive, 652-655. Other Pronouns, 656-659. Demonstrative, 660-670. Determinative, 671-675. Pronoun of Identity, 676-678. Intensive, 679-680. Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite, 681-694. Correlative Pronouns, 695. The Adverb, Conjunction, and Preposition, 696-712. Nouns as Adverbs, 696-698. Accusative, 699-702. Ablative, 703-707. Locative, 708-709. Other Endings, 710. Correlative Adverbs, 711. Sentences as Adverbs, 712. (B.) INFLECTION OF THE VERB, 713-1022. General Principles, 713-742. The Stem, 714-720. The Person Ending, 721-731. Nouns of the Verb, 732. Principal Parts, 733-735. Designation of the Verb, 736-737. Theme, 738-740. Classes of Verbs, 741-742. Primitive Verbs, 743-791. Root Verbs, 743-744. Inflection of sum, 745-750. possum, 751-753. dō, 754-757. bibō, serō, sistō, 758. inquam, 759-761. eō, 762-767. queō and nequeō, 768. edō, 769-771. volō, nōlō, mālō, 772-779. ferō, 780-781. Verbs in -ere (The Third Conjugation), regō, 782-783. Verbs in -iō, -ere, 784-791. capiō, 784-785. āiō, 786-787. fiō, 788-790. Others in -iō, -ere, 791. Denominative Verbs, 792-797. Verbs in -āre (The First Conjugation), laudō, 792-793. Verbs in -ēre (The Second Conjugation), moneō, 794-795. Verbs in -īre (The Fourth Conjugation), audiō, 796-797. Deponent Verbs, 798-801. Periphrastic Forms, 802-804. Defective Verbs, 805-817. Redundant Verbs, 818-823. Formation of Stems, 824-919. Variable Vowel, 824-827. The Present System: Present Indicative Stem, 828-840. Present Subjunctive, 841-843. Imperative, 844-846. Imperfect Indicative, 847-848. Imperfect Subjunctive, 849-850. Future, 851-853. The Perfect System: Perfect Indicative Stem, 854-875. Perfect Subjunctive, 876-878. Perfect Imperative, 879. Pluperfect Indicative, 880. Pluperfect Subjunctive, 881. Future Perfect, 882-884. Short or Old forms of the Perfect System, 885-893. Nouns of the Verb: The Infinitive, 894-898. Gerundive and Gerund, 899. Supine, 900. Present Participle, 901-903. Future Participle, 904-905. Perfect Participle, 906-919. List of Verbs arranged according to the Principal Parts, 920-1022. PART SECOND: SENTENCES, 1023-2299. Definitions, 1023-1061. The Simple Sentence, 1023-1025. The Subject, 1026-1034. The Predicate, 1035-1036. Enlargements of the Subject, 1038-1047. Enlargements of the Predicate, 1048-1054. Combination of Sentences, 1055. The Compound Sentence, 1056-1057. The Complex Sentence, 1058-1061. Agreement, 1062-1098. Of the Verb, 1062-1076. Of the Substantive, 1077-1081. Of the Adjective, 1082-1098. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE, 1099-1635. (A.) USE OF THE NOUN, 1099-1468. Number and Gender, 1099-1110. Case, 1111-1437. Nominative, 1113-1123. Nominative of Title, 1114-1116. Of Exclamation, 1117. Vocative Nominative and Vocative Proper, 1118-1123. Accusative, 1124-1174. Of the Object, 1132-1139. Emphasizing or Defining, 1140-1146. Of the Part Concerned, 1147. Of the Thing Put On, 1148. Of Exclamation, 1149-1150. Of Space and Time, 1151-1156. Of the Aim of Motion, xiii xiv 1157-1166. Two Accusatives Combined, 1167-1174. Dative, 1175-1225. I. The Complementary Dative: (1.) The Essential Complement: With Verbs, 1180-1199. With Adjectives, 1200-1204. (2.) The Optional Complement: Of the person or thing interested, 1205-1210. The Emotional Dative, 1211. The Dative of the Possessor, 1212-1216. Of Relation, 1217-1218. II. The Predicative Dative: Of Tendency or Result, 1219-1222. Of Purpose or Intention, 1223-1225. Genitive, 1226-1295. I. With Substantives: In General, 1227-1231. Of the Subject, Cause, Origin, or Owner, 1232-1238. Of Quality, 1239-1240. Partitive, 1241-1254. Of Definition, 1255-1259. Objective, 1260-1262. II. With Adjectives, 1263-1270. III. With Verbs: Of Valuing, 1271-1275. With rēfert and interest, 1276-1279. With Judicial Verbs, 1280-1282. With Impersonals of Mental Distress, 1283-1286. With Verbs of Memory, 1287-1291. Of Participation and Mastery, 1292. Of Fulness and Want, 1293-1294. IV. The Genitive of Exclamation, 1295. Ablative, 1296-1400. I. The Ablative Proper: Of Separation and Want, and of Departure, 1302-1311. Of Source, Stuff, or Material, 1312-1315. Of Cause, Influence, or Motive, 1316-1319. Of Comparison, 1320-1330. II. The Locative Ablative: The Locative Proper, 1331-1341. The Ablative used as Locative: Of Place in, on, or at which, 1342-1349. Of Time at which or within which, 1350-1355. III. The Instrumental Ablative: (1.) The Ablative of Attendance: Of Accompaniment, 1356-1357. Of Manner, 1358-1361. Ablative Absolute, 1362-1374. Ablative of Quality, 1375. Of the Route Taken, 1376. (2.) The Instrumental Proper: Of Instrument or Means, 1377-1384. Of Specification, 1385. Of Fulness, 1386-1387. Of Measure, Exchange, and Price, 1388-1392. Of the Amount of Difference, 1393-1399. Two or more Ablatives Combined, 1400. Use of Cases with Prepositions, 1401-1437. In General, 1401-1409. With the Accusative, 1410-1416. With the Ablative, 1417-1421. With the Accusative or the Ablative, 1422-1425. Combination of Substantives by a Preposition, 1426-1428. Repetition or Omission of a Preposition, 1429-1430. Two Prepositions with one Substantive, 1431-1432. Position of Prepositions, 1433-1437. Use of Adverbs, 1438-1453. Use of Degrees of Comparison, 1454-1468. (B.) USE OF THE VERB, 1469-1635. Voice, 1469-1492. Active, 1469-1471. Passive, 1472-1485. Deponents, 1486-1492. Mood, 1493-1586. The Indicative, 1493-1533. In Declarations, 1493-1498. In Questions, 1499-1533. Yes or No Questions, 1502-1510. Positive and Negative Answers, 1511-1514. Alternative Questions, 1515-1525. Pronoun Questions, 1526-1530. Some Applications of Questions, 1531-1533. The Infinitive of Intimation, 1534-1539. The Subjunctive, 1540-1570. The Subjunctive in Declarations: I. Of Desire: Of Wish, 1540-1546. Of Exhortation, Direction, Statement of Propriety, 1547-1552. Of Willingness, Assumption, Concession, 1553. II. Of Action Conceivable, 1554-1562. The Subjunctive in Questions, 1563-1570. The Imperative, 1571-1586. Of Command, 1571-1580. Of Prohibition, 1581-1586. Tense, 1587-1635. Of the Indicative, 1587-1633. Present, 1587-1593. Imperfect, 1594-1601. Perfect, 1602-1613. Pluperfect, 1614-1618. Future, 1619-1625. Future Perfect, 1626-1632. The Future Active Participle with sum, 1633. Of the Subjunctive, 1634-1635. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE, OR COORDINATION, 1636-1713. Without a Connective, 1637-1642. With a Connective, 1643-1692. Conjunctions, 1643. Copulative, 1644-1666. Disjunctive, 1667-1675. Adversative, 1676-1686. Other Words as Connectives, 1687-1692. The Intermediate Coordinate Sentence, 1693-1713. The Subordinate Idea unindicated by the Mood, 1695-1704. The Subordinate Idea indicated by the Subjunctive, 1705-1713. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE, OR SUB ORDINATION, 1714-2299. xv Definitions and Classifications, 1714-1716. Primary and Secondary Tenses, 1717. Virtual Futures, 1718. Mood of the Subordinate Sentence, 1720-1731. The Indicative, 1721. The Subjunctive: In Indirect Discourse, and in cases of Attraction, 1722-1729. Of Repeated Action, 1730. As in the Simple Sentence, 1731. Tense of the Subordinate Sentence, 1732-1772. Of the Indicative, 1732-1739. Of the Subjunctive, 1740-1772. Sequence of Tenses, 1745-1772. Tense subordinate to an Indicative, 1746-1761. Tense subordinate to a Subjunctive, 1762-1765. Tense subordinate to a Noun of the Verb, 1766-1769. Subjunctive due to another Subjunctive or to an Infinitive, 1770-1772. The Indirect Question, 1773-1791. In General, 1773-1774. Yes or No Questions, 1775-1777. Alternative Questions, 1778-1784. Pronoun Questions, 1785. Original Subjunctives, 1786. Indicative Questions apparently Indirect, 1787-1791. The Relative Sentence, 1792-1837. Agreement of the Relative, 1801-1811. Moods in the Relative Sentence, 1812-1830. Relative Sentences of Purpose, 1817. Of Characteristic or Result, 1818-1823. Of Cause or Concession, 1824-1830. Correlative Sentences, 1831. Relative Sentences Combined, 1832-1834. The Relative introducing a main Sentence, 1835-1837. The Conjunctive Particle Sentence, 1838-2122. Introduced by quod, 1838-1855. quia, 1856-1858. quom or cum, 1859-1881. quoniam, 1882-1884. quotiēns, quotiēnscumque, 1885-1887. quam, 1888-1898. quamquam, 1899-1902. quamvīs, 1903-1907. tamquam, 1908-1910. antequam, priusquam, 1911-1922. postquam, ubī̆, ut, cum prīmum, simul atque, 1923-1934. ut, 1935-1970. ubī̆, 1971. quō, 1972-1976. quōminus, 1977-1979. quīn, 1980-1990. dum, dōnec, quoad, quamdiū, 1991-2009. quandō, 2010-2014. sī, 2015-2115. etsī, tametsī, etiamsī, 2116. quasi, tamquam sī, ut or velut sī, 2117-2122. Connection of Separate Sentences or Periods, 2123-2159. Without a Connective, 2124-2127. With a Connective, 2128-2158. Affirmative Coordination, 2159. Nouns of the Verb, 2160-2299. The Infinitive, 2160-2236. Definitions, 2160-2163. The Infinitive of Purpose, 2164-2165. With Adjectives, 2166. The Infinitive as Object: The Complementary Infinitive, 2168-2171. The Accusative with the Infinitive, 2172-2206. The Infinitive as Subject, 2207-2215. The Infinitive of Exclamation, 2216. Tenses of the Infinitive, 2218. Present, 2219-2222. Perfect, 2223-2231. Future, 2232-2236. The Gerundive and Gerund, 2237-2268. Definitions, 2237-2242. Nominative, 2243-2249. Accusative, 2250-2253. Dative, 2254-2257. Genitive, 2258-2264. Ablative, 2265-2268. The Supine, 2269-2277. Definitions, 2269. Supine in -um, 2270-2273. Supine in -ū, 2274-2277. The Participle, 2278-2299. Definition, 2278. Time of the Participle, 2279-2281. The Attributive Participle, 2282-2286. The Substantive Participle, 2287-2292. The Appositive Participle, 2293-2296. The Predicative Participle, 2297-2299. APPENDIX, 2300-2745. Some Occasional Peculiarities of Verbs, 2300-2307. The Conative Use, 2301-2303. The Causative Use, 2304. The Potential Use, 2305. The Obligatory Use, 2306. The Permissive Use, 2307. Indirect Discourse, 2308-2334. Definitions, 2308-2311. Mood, 2312-2320. Tense, 2321-2324. Pronoun, 2325. Conditional Periods in Indirect Discourse, 2326-2334. Use of Pronouns, 2335-2403. Personal, 2335. Reflexive, 2336-2343. Equivalents for a Reciprocal Pronoun, 2344-2345. Possessive, 2346. Demonstrative, 2347-2364. Determinative, 2365-2370. Pronoun of Identity, 2371-2373. Intensive, 2374-2384. Interrogative, 2385-2386. Relative, 2387. Indefinite, 2388-2403. Numerals, 2404-2428. Classification, 2404. List of Numerals, 2405. Notation, 2406-2411. Some forms of Numerals, 2412-2418. Some uses of Numerals, 2419-2422 Other Numerals, 2423. Fractions, 2424-2428. xvi xvii Prosody, 2429-2739. Rules of Quantity, 2429-2472. In Classical Latin, 2429-2457. Position, 2458. Hidden Quantity, 2459-2463. Peculiarities of Quantity in Old Latin, 2464-2469. Iambic Shortening, 2470-2472. Figures of Prosody, 2473-2510. Hiatus, 2473-2480. Elision, 2481-2492. Ecthlipsis, 2493-2496. Semi-Hiatus or Semi-Elision, 2497. Synaloepha, 2498. Synizesis, 2499. Synaeresis, 2500. Dialysis, 2501. Diaeresis, 2502. Hardening, 2503. Softening, 2504. Diastolé, 2505-2506. Systolé, 2507. Syncopé, 2508. Tmesis, 2509. Synapheia, 2510. Versification, 2511-2739. Definitions, 2511-2548. Numeri Italici, 2549. The Saturnian, 2550-2554. Dactylic Rhythms, 2555-2580. Iambic Rhythms, 2581-2627. Trochaic Rhythms, 2628-2649. Logaoedic Rhythms, 2650-2074. Dactylo-Trochaic Rhythms, 2675-2681. Anapaestic Rhythms, 2682-2690. Cretic Rhythms, 2691-2697. Bacchiac Rhythms, 2698-2706. Choriambic Rhythms, 2707. Ionic Rhythms, 2708-2717. Lyric Metres of Horace, 2718-2737. Lyric Strophes of Catullus, 2738. Index of Horatian Odes and their metres, 2739. Abbreviations used in citing the Authors, 2740-2745. Index of Subjects. Index of Latin Words. LATIN GRAMMAR 1. Latin Grammar has two parts. I. The first part treats of words: (A.) their sound; (B.) their formation; (C.) their inflection. II. The second part shows how words are joined together in sentences. PART FIRST ❧ WORDS PARTS OF SPEECH. 2. The principal kinds of words or Parts of Speech are Nouns, Verbs, and Conjunctions. 3. I. Nouns are Substantive or Adjective. 4. (A.) Nouns Substantive, otherwise called Substantives, are divided, as to meaning, into Concrete and Abstract. 5. (1.) Concrete Substantives denote persons or things. Concrete Substantives are subdivided into Proper Names, which denote individual persons or things: as, Cicerō, Cicero; Rōma, Rome; and Common Names, otherwise called Appellatives, which denote one or more of a class: as, homo, man; taurus, bull. 6. Appellatives which denote a collection of single things are called Collectives: as, turba, crowd; exercitus, army. Appellatives which denote stuff, quantity, material, things not counted, but having measure or weight, are called Material Substantives: as, vīnum, wine; ferrum, iron; faba, horsebeans. 7. (2.) Abstract Substantives denote qualities, states, conditions: as, rubor, redness; aequitās, fairness; sōlitūdō, loneliness. 8. (B.) Nouns Adjective, otherwise called Adjectives, attached to substantives, describe persons or things: as, ruber, red; aequus, fair; sōlus, alone. 9. Pronouns are words of universal application which serve as substitutes for nouns. Thus, taurus, bull, names, and ruber, red, describes, particular things; but ego, I, is universally applicable to any speaker, and meus, mine, to anything belonging to any speaker. 10. Adverbs are mostly cases of nouns used to denote manner, place, time or degree: as, subitō, suddenly; forās, out of doors; diū, long; valdē, mightily, very. 11. Prepositions are adverbs which are used to modify as prefixes the meaning of verbs, or to define more nicely the meaning of cases: as, vocō, I call, ēvocō, I call out; ex urbe, from town. 12. II. VERBS are words which denote action, including existence or condition: as, regit, he guides; est, he is; latet, he is hid. 13. III. Conjunctions connect sentences, nouns, or verbs: as, et, and; sed, but. 14. Interjections are cries which express feeling, and are not usually a part of the sentence: as, ā, ah; heu, alas. 15. There is no Article in Latin: thus, mēnsa may denote table, a table, or the table. A. SOUND. ALPHABET. 16. In Cicero’s time, the sounds of the Latin language were denoted by twenty-one letters (DN. 2, 93). Character Name pronounced A a ah B be bay C ce kay D de day E e eh F ef ef G ge gay H ha hah I i ee 1 2 K ka kah L el el M em em N en en O o o P pe pay Q qu koo R er air S es ess T te tay V u oo X ix eex The names given above are those employed by Roman grammarians. The sound indicated by -ay is only approximate; the true sound is that of the French ê in fête; see 39. The names of the letters are indeclinable; for their gender, see 412. 17. Two other letters were also in use to represent Greek sounds in Greek words; these were always called by their Greek names, and were placed at the end of the alphabet; they are Y, named ü (42), and Z, named zēta (71). 18. Origin of the Alphabet. The Latin alphabet, which originally consisted of capitals only, was adapted from the alphabet of Chalcidian colonies in Italy. 19. Spelling. The signs for the Greek sounds denoted by φ and χ, and perhaps also that for θ, these three sounds being unknown in Latin, were used as numerals (2407). In words borrowed from the Greek the Romans at first represented θ by t, φ by p, and χ by c: as, tūs, incense, for θύος; Poenī, Punians, for Φοίνικες; calx, chalk, for χάλιξ. Occasionally also the Latin mute was doubled: as, struppus, strap, for στρόφος. Later, about the middle of the second century b.c., th, ph, and ch begin to be used: as, cothurnus, boot, for κόθορνος; amphora, jar, for ἀμφόρα; Achaea for Ἀχαιά. In some instances these aspirates were next introduced even into words purely Latin: as, chommodus, affable, for commodus, an affectation ridiculed by Catullus (Cat. 84) and disapproved by Quintilian (1, 5, 20). But pulcher, pretty, is the usual spelling for pulcer (formed by the suffix -cro- from the stem of the verb poliō, I polish). Even Cicero (O. 160) aspirated the c in this word as a concession to popular usage, as he did the t in Cethēgus, Karthāgō, and the p in triumphus, while he retained the unaspirated explosive in the proper names Orcīvius, name of a ‘gens,’ Matō, Otō, Caepiō, and in sepulcrum, tomb; corōna, crown; and lacrima, tear. In a similar manner Greek ρ was at first transcribed by r: as, rumpia, a kind of weapon, for ῥομφαία; but later by rh: as, rhētor, rhetorician, for ῥητωρ. 20. The letters C (first written <) and K were at an early period used promiscuously, and C stood for both unvoiced k and voiced g: as, virco, virgō, virgin. Afterwards K dropped out of general use except in the abbreviations K. or Kal. for kalendae, first of the month, and K. for the proper name Kaesō (Quint. 1, 7, 10). About 300 b.c. the sign < or C was used for the unvoiced k alone, while a separate sign, which became G, was set apart for the voiced g. But C continued to be used for g in the abbreviations C for Gāius, Ↄ for Gāia, and Cn. for Gnaeus. Occasionally q is written for c, almost always before the vowels o and u: as, qum for cum, with; qolunt for colunt, they cultivate; peqūnia, money. But ordinarily q is found before unsyllabic (consonantal) u (v) only (22). 21. Before the introduction of Y and Z (17), u was used for the Greek υ: as, Burrus, later Pyrrhus (Cic. O. 160); and s, or, as a medial, ss, for ζ: as, sōna, belt, later zōna; massa, lump, for μᾶζα; malacissō, I soften, for μαλακίζω. By a blunder, y was occasionally introduced in words of Latin origin: as, lacryma, tear, for lacrima, which was wrongly supposed to be derived from Greek δάκρυ. 22. The characters I and V represent not only the two vowels i and u, but also their cognate semivowels (52) i̭ and ṷ (83), called commonly consonant i and u, but with less ambiguity unsyllabic i and u (82; 83). They are equivalent to the English y and w respectively. 23. In words like maior, simple i was commonly written for the sound of i̭i̭ (153, 2; 82; 83). But Cicero in such cases wrote ii: as, aiiō, I say, Maiia, Troiia (Quint. 1, 4, 11). In the same way Lucretius spelled Graiiugenārum, of Greek- born men, and eiivs, of him, cviivs, whose, occur in inscriptions. Sometimes the same sound is represented by a taller letter, ‘i longa,’ especially in the imperial age: as, maIor, greater. There are also cases in which the two designations were confounded, a double i being written, and one or the other letter made taller: as, eiIvs or eIivs, of him. 24. The tall i, I longa, was used not only to represent unsyllabic i (22), but, beginning with Sulla’s time, also for long vowel i (29, 2, b): as, sIgna, signs; qvInqve, five. It also represents sometimes double i: as, vIs for viīs, in the roads. At the beginning of words it occurs without reference to quantity for both short and long i, and, by mistake, I is elsewhere found for short i. 25. The emperor Claudius (a.d. 41-54) introduced a separate sign for unsyllabic u (22), restricting the sign v to the vowel u (Quint. 1, 7, 26; Ta. 11, 14); but it did not become current. 26. In schoolbooks and most texts of the authors, the vowel u is printed U, u, and the consonant V, v. A character, J, j, was introduced in the 17th century, to indicate the consonant i. But this character is no longer usual in editions of the authors or in schoolbooks. 27. The distinction between u and v is not always made very consistently: q has regularly, and g and s have sometimes, an aftersound of w, best represented by v; but the usual practice is to write u, as in the following disyllables: quōrum, of whom; anguis, snake; suāvis, sweet. qu is always counted as a single sound (177). See also 2504. 28. For the intermediate sound (103) between i and u, as in the first syllable of lubet, libet, it pleases, and in the second syllable of optimus, optumus, best (Quint. 1, 4, 8; 7, 21), the emperor Claudius invented a separate character. It failed of acceptance, as did also the sign which he attempted to introduce for ps. 29. The same characters were ordinarily used to denote both long and short vowels. But at different periods long vowels were sometimes indicated in inscriptions thus: (1.) Long a, e, or u was sometimes doubled: as, aara, altar; paastores, shepherds; leege, by law; ivvs, right. This doubling, which was never frequent, seems to have been introduced into Latin from the Oscan by the poet Accius. It occurs most frequently in inscriptions about the year 150 b.c., but sporadically much later: as, conventvvs, of the assembly; arbitratvv, by 3 4 the decree; and in other stems in -u- (593). (2.) Long i was often denoted (a.) By the spelling ei (after the pronunciation of this diphthong had been changed to ī, 98): as, darei, be given; redieit, hath come back; interieisti, hast died. Some Roman grammarians prescribed this spelling for every long i; others tried to regulate the use of ei for ī by special rules. At the end of the republic, the spelling ei had given way to uniform i. (b.) Since the time of Sulla, by a taller letter (‘i longa’): as, fIxa, fastened (23, 24). (3.) A mark called an apex ( ) was often put over a long vowel: as, fe͆ cit, made; horte͆ nsivs; dvv͆ mviratvs, duumvirate. The apex was written ´ in the imperial age; the form -, which occurs in an inscription, was adopted by the grammarians, and is still in use to mark the long vowels. It may be mentioned that inscriptions which employ the apex are by no means consistent in its use, and that late inscriptions have it over short and long vowels, apparently for decorative purposes. Quintilian 1, 7, 2 prescribes it only for cases which otherwise might be ambiguous: as, málvs (mālus), mast, to distinguish it from malvs (malus), bad. 30. In schoolbooks, a long vowel is indicated by a horizontal line over it: as, āra, altar; mēnsis, month; ōrdō, series. A short vowel is sometimes indicated by a curved mark: as, pĕr, through; dŭx, leader; but this mark is unnecessary if long vowels are systematically marked. Usually the quantity of the vowels in each word is definitely fixed; but in a few cases the same vowel may be now short, now long, as in English the ee of been is pronounced long by some (bean), short by others (bin). Thus (2446) mihi, ibi were sometimes pyrrhics (�, 2522), sometimes iambi (�-, 2521). See for other cases 134, 2443, 2452, 2453. Such vowels of variable quantity are termed common and marked � or �: as mihī̆, to me (2514). PRONUNCIATION. 31. The pronunciation of Latin sounds may be approximately determined: (a) from the description of the native grammarians and incidental allusions in other Latin authors; (b) from variations in spelling; (c) from the Greek transliteration of Latin words; (d) from the Latin transliteration of foreign words; (e) from the development of the sounds in languages derived from the Latin. VOWELS. 32. Vowels are sounds which are produced by the vibrations of the vocal chords (this may be easily felt by placing a finger on the throat at the Adam’s apple) and without any audible friction or any obstruction anywhere in the passage above the vocal chords. The difference in the sound of the vowels is due to the different shape which the position of the tongue and the lips gives in each case to the cavity of the mouth. During the pronunciation of pure vowels no air escapes through the nose. 33. The simple vowels, a, e, i, o, u (y), are either long or short. The sound of a long vowel is considered to be twice the length of that of a short. 34. That a long vowel is equal to two shorts is a rule of metrical theory (see 2515). In actual pronunciation, there were undoubtedly various degrees of length, as in English: e.g., sea, seize (long), cease (half-long). QUANTITY OF VOWELS. The quantity of vowels must in general be learned by observation; but some convenient helps for the memory may be found in 2429; and the quantity of many vowels may be ascertained by the general principles given in 35 and 36. Except in the case of Hidden Quantity (2459), the quantity of vowels is in general ascertained from verse. But some information may also be gleaned from such rhetorical prose as exhibits well defined habits in the rhythmical endings selected for sentences (clausulae, Cic. O. 191-226). (A.) SHORT VOWELS. 35. A vowel is short: (1.) Before another vowel or h (124): as, eōs, ēvehō; compare taceō with tacēre. For exceptions in classical Latin, see 127; for exceptions in early Latin see 126. (2.) Before nt and nd (128) if not the result of contraction: as, calendae, centum; compare amant, amandus, with amāre. (3.) Before final t and m, and, in words of more than one syllable, before final r and l (132): compare amat, amem, with amās and amēs. (B.) LONG VOWELS. 36. All vowels are long which are: (1) Weakened from a diphthong (96-101; 108), or which are the result of contraction (118): as, concīdō from caedō; cōgō from co-agō. (2) Lengthened by compensation (121): as, quīnī for *quincnī. (3) Before nf, ns, often before nc followed by a consonant, and, in some cases, before gn (122). PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS. 37. The following English sounds come nearest to the Latin pronunciation of the vowels: 38. LONG VOWELS. ā had the sound of a in father; ē that of a in fate (but see 39); ī that of i in machine; ō that of o in tone; ū that of u in rule. 39. It must be noted, however, that all English long vowels, save a as in father, are more or less diphthongal, that is, 5 6 they become gradually closer (46); a in fate ends in a vanishing sound of ee (not heard in the ê of French fête), and o in no ends in the sound of oo. Similarly the long e sound in he becomes closer and ends in a sound similar to the y in year. In Latin all long vowels had one sustained sound. 40. Short vowels. a sounded approximately like the English a in the first syllable of aha; e, i, o, and u sounded like e in step, i in pit, o in obey, and u in pull respectively. 41. Latin short a did not differ, except in quantity, from long ā; it never had the ‘flat’ sound of English a in pat. In the case of the other vowels, i, e, o, and u, the long vowels were closer (46) than the short ones. This is the same difference which the English shows in keen (long and close) and kin (short and open); pool (long and close) and pull (short and open). For this reason, open i is sometimes represented by e in inscriptions: as, anema for anima, soul; and vea was the rustic pronunciation for via, road (Varro, R. R. 1, 2, 14). 42. Y, which was a sound borrowed from the Greek (17), sounded like German ü. The sound, which is missing in English, is formed with the tongue in position for i (in kin) and the lips rounded as for oo (in moon). CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS. 43. Vowels are divided according to the position of the tongue. Latin i and e are called front vowels, because the front part of the tongue is elevated. This elevation is greater for i than for e. Latin o and u are called back vowels, because they require an elevation of the rear part of the tongue. This elevation is greater for u than for o. Latin a holds an intermediate position, no part of the tongue being raised, while the front part is depressed. 44. In the formation of i and e, the tongue approaches the hard palate; hence these two vowels are also called palatal vowels. Similarly, o and u are called velar or guttural vowels, because in their formation the tongue approaches the soft palate (vēlum palātī). 45. o and u require a rounding of the lips (labia); hence they are called labial vowels. The same is true for y. 46. Comparing the vowels in English keen and kin, it will be noted that the passage between the tongue and the hard palate is narrower in the former than in the latter case. The ee in keen is therefore said to be a narrow or close vowel, while the i in kin is wide or open. See 41. DIPHTHONGS. 47. Two unlike (43-46) vowels pronounced under one stress and as one syllable form a Diphthong. All diphthongs are long. In all diphthongs the transition from one vowel to the other is gradual. A diphthong is, therefore, not formed simply by pronouncing two vowels in succession, but the vocal organs pass through all the intermediate positions and consequently the sound is constantly changing. 48. In their origin diphthongs are of two kinds: (a.) primitive diphthongs: as in foedus, treaty; aurum, gold; or (b.) secondary diphthongs, the result of vowels meeting in formation, composition, or inflection: see 120. 49. The diphthongs which occur in classical Latin are au, ae, oe, and the rare ui and eu. au sounded like ou in house. ae had the sound of short Latin a rapidly combined with the sound of e in English men. But it is the common practice now to give to ae the sound of ay or ai in ay, aisle, although the difference between Latin ae and the earlier ai from which it descended is thus obliterated. oe had the sound of short Latin o rapidly followed by the sound of e in English men. But it is now customary not to distinguish between Latin oe and oi, and to give to both the sound of oi in boil. ui is pronounced by combining Latin short u and i (40, 41) with the stress on the i like French oui; eu by combining Latin short e and u with stress on the u. 50. Besides these, the following diphthongs occur in the older inscriptions: ai pronounced as ai in aisle; ei as ei in eight; oi as oi in boil; and ou which sounded very much like the final o in no, go, which is really a diphthong (see 39). CONSONANTS. 51. Consonants are formed by stopping the breath somewhere in the cavity of the mouth or by squeezing it through a narrow channel or aperture. 52. Semivowels. There is no sharp line of demarcation between consonants and vowels. Some vowels in unsyllabic function (82, 83) notably i (i̭) and u (ṷ ) (corresponding to English y and w), though usually classed as consonants, are so closely related to the vowels that they are termed semivowels (2504). To these may be added also the liquids l and r. Contact of the semivowels i and u with their corresponding vowels i and u is avoided in classical times. See for -vu- 107, c; for -quu- 157; and for -i̭i- 104, c (on obi̭iciō); 458 (Bōī for *Bōi̭ī). See 153, 3. PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS. 53. Most of the consonants are pronounced as in English. The following points must be noticed: 54. b before a surd, as s or t, has the sound of p. The spelling b is here simply etymological: as, abs, pronounced aps (the b retained in spelling because of ab); urbs, pronounced urps (the b retained because of the oblique cases urbis, urbī, etc.); obterō, pronounced opterō (Quint. 1, 7, 7), where the spelling of the preposition ob was kept (164). 55. c has always the sound of English k. 56. d before the surd s is pronounced t; the spelling d is preserved for etymological reasons only: as, adsum, pronounced atsum. 57. g always has the sound of English g in go, never that of g in gentle. gu, when it makes one syllable with the following vowel, is pronounced like English gw: as, sanguine like sanguine. 7 8 58. h has a weak sound as h in British English (Southern), and by some was not counted as a consonant. Consequently the same uncertainty existed as to initial h. The omission of initial h is recognized in classical Latin for ānser (originally *hānser). Elsewhere the omission of initial h in spelling, as ostia for hostia, is rare until the third century a.d. Very rarely h is written between two vowels to denote that each should be pronounced separately (like our diaeresis in coëxtensive): as, ahēneus, bronze, with aē separate (116 a); but aes, bronze, with diphthongal ae. 59. Unsyllabic (22) or consonant i has the sound of English y in year. 60. There were two varieties of l. One was like the English l, guttural in character, because in its pronunciation not only the blade (front part) of the tongue touched the gums, but in addition to this the rear part of the tongue was elevated toward the soft palate. The other l was purely dental, and formed without such back elevation. This second variety appeared in the combination ll, or whenever l was followed by the front vowels (43) e or i, or when it was final. Elsewhere l was guttural. 61. From the earliest times final m in unaccented syllables had a faint sound or was even inaudible (Quint. 9, 4, 39). Consequently it is often omitted in writing in the older inscriptions both before an initial vowel or consonant: as, pocolo for pōcolom; oino for oinom (ūnum), and the grammarian Verrius Flaccus proposed to write only half an M for final m before a vowel. In prosody, therefore, final m did not prevent elision (2493). The same is seen in prose in cases like animadvertō, I pay heed to, from animum advertō, I turn my mind toward (395); vēnīre, to be sold for vēnum īre, to go to sale (1165). But in monosyllables where m closes the accented syllable, it did not vanish (2494, 2495), and this difference in the treatment of final m is reflected in the Romance languages. 62. n stands for two sounds. It represents the dental nasal, as n in English now. But before the gutturals k, c, g, q, and the compound x (= cs), it represents the guttural nasal which is written ng in English sing, wrong. This second n is sometimes called n adulterīnum or ‘spurious n,’ thus: nc (in avunculus) as in uncle; ng (in angulus) as in angle; ngu (in sanguine) as in sanguine; nqu (in inquit) as inkw in inkwiper; nx (in pīnxit) as in lynx. 63. Dental n before s had a reduced sound, and is therefore sometimes omitted in writing: as, cesor for cēnsor; cosol for cōnsul, in older inscriptions; and fōrmōsus by the side of fōrmōnsus; vīcēsimus by the side of vīcēnsimus, Cicero omitted the n in the adjective suffix -ēnsis: as, forēsia, of the forum; hortēsia, garden plants. 64. q, in classical Latin, appears only in the combination qu, sounded like English qu or kw (27). r was trilled. 65. s, in classical Latin was always unvoiced (surd, 75) like English s in so, sin, never voiced (sonant, 75) as English s in ease. su, when it makes one syllable with the following vowel, is like sw in sweet (27). 66. In old Latin, final s after a short vowel and before a consonant seems to have been reduced in sound or to have disappeared altogether. In the older inscriptions it is often omitted in the ending of the nominative singular -us, and in the pre- Ciceronian poets final s often does not make position (2468). But such omission was considered vulgar in Cicero’s time (Cic. O. 161; Quint. 9, 4, 38). 67. In the archaic period Latin s stood also for the voiced sibilant (English s in ease, z in zeal), as in asa, altar (154). 68. t is always sounded as in time, never as in nation. The pronunciation of ci and ti with the c and t as sibilants (as in English cinder, nation) is very late. 69. v is like the English w. 70. x is a compound consonant, standing for cs, and so sounded, never as English gs or gz. 71. z, being a Greek sound, should have retained its Greek pronunciation. This differed in the different dialects; in the Attic of the fourth century b.c. it was approximately that of English z in zeal, while its earlier value was zd. The Romans had great difficulty in pronouncing this sound (Quint. 12, 10, 27 f.), but the grammarian Velius Longus expressly states that it should not be pronounced as a compound sound (zd). 72. About 100 b.c. the combinations ch, ph, and th were introduced in Greek words to represent χ, φ, and θ; as Philippus, for the older pilipvs. Somewhat later these combinations were in general use in some Latin words (19). ch is thought to have been pronounced like kh in blockhead, ph as in uphill, and th as in hothouse. But in practice ch is usually sounded as in the German machen or ich, ph as in graphic, and th as in pathos. CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS. 73. Explosives. Consonants which are formed by stopping the breath in the oral cavity and then suddenly removing the obstruction are called explosives. They cannot be prolonged in sound. They are: c, k, q, g; t, d; p, b. These are often called mutes. 74. Continuants. Consonants which may be prolonged in sound are called continuants. They are:...

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The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges, by George M. Lane This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: A Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges Author: George M. Lane Editor: Morris H. Morgan Release Date: January 20, 2014 [EBook #44653] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LATIN GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS, COLLEGES *** Produced by Louise Hope, Andrew Wainwright, Alicia Williams and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net Typographical errors are shown with mouse-hover popups, and are listed again at the end of the e-text. Some apparent errors are “ghosts” of the first edition; see endnote. In the Index, missing or incorrect punctuation has been silently regularized. The appendix includes some fairly specialized content, notably under Numerals and Prosody. If you are dissatisfied with your device’s display, you may prefer the PDF file covering these sections. Preface Table of Contents Sections 1-179: Sounds Sections 180-396: Formation Sections 397-712: Inflection of Nouns Sections 713-1022: Inflection of Verbs Sections 1023-1713: Sentences Sections 1714-2299: Complex Sentences Sections 2300-2745: Appendix Index of Subjects Index of Latin Words Advertising A LATIN GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, BY GEORGE M. LANE, PH.D., LL.D. PROFESSOR EMERITUS OF LATIN IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY REVISED EDITION NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Copyright, 1898, 1903, by Gardiner M. Lane and Louisa Van Rensselaer. All rights reserved. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. George Martin Lane died on the thirtieth of June, 1897. His Latin Grammar, in the preparation of which he had been engaged, during the intervals of teaching in Harvard University, for nearly thirty years, was at that time approaching completion. The first two hundred and ninety-one pages had been stereotyped; the pages immediately following, on the Relative Sentence and the Conjunctive Particle Sentence through quod and quia (pages 292-302), together with the chapter on the Infinitive (pages 374-386), were ready for stereotyping; of the remainder of the book, pages 303-373 and 387-436 were in the form of a first draught; finally, he had received a few weeks before his death, but had never examined, the manuscript of the chapter on Versification (pages 442-485), written at his invitation by his former pupil, Dr. Herman W. Hayley, now of Wesleyan University. It was found that my dear and honoured master had left a written request that his work should be completed by me, in consultation with his colleagues, Professors Frederic De Forest Allen and Clement Lawrence Smith. A month had scarcely passed when scholars everywhere had another heavy loss to mourn in the sudden death of Professor Allen. Almost immediately afterwards, Professor Smith left this country, to take charge for a year of the American School of Classical Studies in Rome, but not before we had agreed that circumstances required the early publication of the book, notwithstanding his absence. I was thus deprived of two eminent counsellors, whose knowledge and experience would have been of inestimable assistance. About one hundred and twenty pages (303-373 and 387-436), exclusive of Versification, were yet to receive their final form. Professor Lane had determined the order in which the topics contained in these pages should be treated, and no change has been made in that order. Most of the main principles of syntax, too, have been left exactly as they were expressed in his draught. This draught was written some years ago, and, although he had corrected and annotated it from time to time, there is no doubt that in writing it out afresh he would have made many alterations and improvements which are not indicated in his notes. Consequently, he is not to be held responsible for errors and omissions in the pages which had not received his final approval. Yet I conceived it my duty to preserve, so far as possible, the very language of his corrected draught; and this, in the statement of almost all the main principles, I have been able to do. Some modifications and some radical alterations were inevitable; in particular, the treatment of quamvis, quando, quin, the Supine, and Numerals seemed to call for much amplification and rearrangement. I have also deemed it necessary to add some seventy sections* under various heads, and Dr. Hayley has been good enough to write sections 2458-2510, which precede his chapter on Versification. But, in general, my principal function has been: first, to provide additional Latin examples of the principles which Professor Lane had formulated; secondly, to enter, under the various principles, historical statements regarding the usage in the Latin writers, drawn from the best authorities at my disposal. Professor Lane’s own method was far from that of a compiler. He took nothing for granted without thorough investigation, however well established it might seem, and he followed the dictum of no man, however widely accepted as an authority. For example, his many pupils and correspondents will remember how untiring he was in his efforts to arrive at accuracy in even the minutest points of inflection. Thus, for the List of Verbs (§§ 922-1022), he made entirely new collections, and admitted no form among the ‘principal parts’ unless actually found represented in the authors. In the details of syntax, he was equally indefatigable; the sections on the Locative Proper (1331-1341), for instance, contain the result of an immense amount of painful research. He devoted much anxious thought to the definitions and the titles of the various constructions: thus, the distinction between the Present of Vivid Narration (1590) and the Annalistic Present (1591) seems obvious now that it is stated; but to reach it many pages of examples were collected and compared. He held that examples printed in the grammar to illustrate syntactical principles should never be manufactured; they should be accurately quoted from the authors, without other alteration than the omission of words by which the construction under illustration was not affected. He was careful, also, not to use an example in which there was any serious doubt as to the text in that part which covered the principle illustrated by the example. To ‘Hidden Quantity’ he had given much attention, and many of the results of his studies in this subject were published, in 1889, in the School Dictionary by his friend Dr. Lewis. Since that time he had found reason to change his views with regard to some words, and these changes are embodied in the present book, in which he marked every vowel which he believed to be long in quantity. The order in which the divisions and subdivisions of grammar are here presented will not seem strange to those who are acquainted with the recent grammars published by Germans. It is the scientific order of presentation, whatever order a teacher may think fit to follow in his actual practice. The table of contents has been made so full as to serve as a v vi vii systematic exposition of the scheme, and to make needless any further words upon it here. In the Appendix Professor Lane would have inserted, out of deference to custom, a chapter on the Arrangement of Words; but the draught of it which he left was too fragmentary for publication. Since the proper preparation of the chapter would have greatly delayed the publication of the book, it was thought best to omit it altogether, at least for the present. This topic, in fact, like some others in the Appendix, belongs rather to a treatise on Latin Composition than to a Latin Grammar. For the indexes, and for much valuable help in proof reading, I heartily thank Dr. J. W. Walden, another of Professor Lane’s pupils. In the course of his work, Professor Lane frequently consulted his colleagues and other distinguished scholars both in this country and in Europe. He gratefully welcomed their advice, and carefully considered and often adopted their suggestions. Had he lived to write a preface, he would doubtless have thanked by name those to whom he considered himself as under particular obligation, whether from direct correspondence or through the use of their published works; but it is obvious that the information in my possession will not allow me to attempt this pleasant duty. Of Professor Lane’s pupils, also, not a few, while in residence as advanced students at the University, were from time to time engaged in the collection of material which he used in the grammar. They, like his other helpers, must now be content with the thought of the courteous acknowledgment which they would have received from him. MORRIS H. MORGAN. Harvard University, Cambridge, May, 1898. * The sections which I have added are as follows: 1866, 1873, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1887, 1890, 1901, 1902, 1903, 1907, 1909, 1913, 1922, 1927, 1935, 1964, 1975, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1989, 1990, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2068, 2086, 2088, 2097, 2111, 2122, 2152, 2155, 2255, 2264, 2267, 2271, 2273, 2275, 2276, 2277, 2281, 2289, 2292, 2345, 2357, 2400, 2406, 2407, 2408, 2409, 2410, 2411, 2412, 2413, 2414, 2740- 2745. PREFATORY NOTE TO THE REVISED EDITION. In this Revised Edition many changes and corrections in details have been introduced throughout the book, but no alterations have been made in the treatment of broad general principles, except in the chapter on Sound (§§ 16-179). This has been very largely rewritten and extended from nineteen to thirty-one pages by my friend, Professor Hanns Oertel, of Yale University, who has also been kind enough to make the changes in the chapters on Formation and Inflection rendered necessary by his rewriting of the sections on Sound. In this rewriting Mr. Oertel has proceeded upon the ideas that in a school grammar, even an advanced one, phonology should play a subordinate part; that nothing should be introduced that cannot be illustrated from such Latin and Greek as are available to the student; and that those points should be emphasized which assist in the analyzing of compounds and in the understanding of word-formation and inflection. With these ideas, which necessarily prevent the introduction of some important topics treated in works on phonetics, I am in entire sympathy. My thanks are due to not a few scholars and reviewers who have pointed out passages in the first edition which in their opinion called for changes. Some of their suggestions I have adopted; with others I have found myself unable to agree. M. H. M. Harvard University, Cambridge, May, 1903. viii ix TABLE OF CONTENTS. THE REFERENCES ARE TO SECTIONS. Parts of Latin Grammar, 1. PART FIRST: WORDS, 2-1022. Parts of Speech, 2-15. (A.) SOUND, 16-179. Alphabet, 16-30. Sources of our Pronunciation, 31. Vowels, 32-46. Long and Short, 33-36. Pronunciation, 37-42. Classification, 43-46. Diphthongs, 47-50. Nature and Kinds, 47, 48. Pronunciation, 49, 50. Consonants, 51-81. Pronunciation, 51-72. Classification, 73-81. Syllabic and Unsyllabic Function, 82, 83. Accent, 84-98. Nature, 84. Marks of Accent, 85. The Classical Accent, 86-88. Earlier Recessive Accent, 89-91. Proclitics and Enclitics, 92-94. Change of Sound, 95-174. Vowel Change: Of Diphthongs, 95-101; 108. Of Simple Vowels, 102-107. Loss, 110-113. Hiatus, 114-116. Synizesis, 117. Contraction, 118. Elision, 119. Combination into Diphthongs, 120. Lengthening, 121-123. Shortening, 124-132. Transfer of Quantity, 133. Variation, 134. Quantitative Vowel Gradation, 135. Qualitative Vowel Changes, 136-143. Assimilation, 144. Qualitative Vowel Gradation, 145. Consonant Change: Disappearance or Change of Single Consonants, 146-161. Change in Consonant Groups, 162-179. Assimilation, 163-166. Consonantal Glides, 167. Disappearance, 168-171. Development of Anaptyctical Vowel, 172. Dissimilation, 173. Changes within Compounds, 174. Syllables, 175-179. Defined, 175, 176. Length of Syllables, 177, 178. Loss, 179. (B.) FORMATION, 180-396. Definitions, 180-198. Roots, 183-189. Present Stems as Roots, 190-194. Stems, 195-197. Primitives and Denominatives, 198. Formation of the Noun, 199-364. Without a Formative Suffix, 199. Formative Suffixes, 200-203. Formation of the Substantive: Primitives, 204-245. Denominatives, 246-279. Formation of the Adjective: Primitives, 280-297. Denominatives, 298-341. Comparison, 342-364. Formation of Denominative Verbs, 365-375. Composition, 376-396. Of Nouns, 379-390. Of Verbs, 391-396. (C.) INFLECTION, 397-1022. Definition, 397. (A.) INFLECTION OF THE NOUN, 398-712. General Principles, 398-431. Case Endings, 398. The Stem, 399-401. Gender, 402-413. Number, 414-418. Case, 419-431. The Substantive, 432-607. Stems in -ā- (The First Declension), 432-445. Stems in -o- (The Second Declension), 446-466. Consonant Stems (The Third Declension), 467-512. Stems in -i- (The Third Declension), 513-569. Gender of Consonant Stems and -i- Stems, 570-584. Stems in -u- (The Fourth Declension), 585-595. Stems in -ē- (The Fifth Declension), 596-607. xi xii The Adjective, 608-643. Stems in -o- and -ā-, 613-620. Consonant Stems, 621-626. Stems in -i-, 627-636. Numeral Adjectives, 637-643. The Pronoun, 644-695. Personal and Reflexive, 644-651. Personal and Reflexive Possessive, 652-655. Other Pronouns, 656-659. Demonstrative, 660-670. Determinative, 671-675. Pronoun of Identity, 676-678. Intensive, 679-680. Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite, 681-694. Correlative Pronouns, 695. The Adverb, Conjunction, and Preposition, 696-712. Nouns as Adverbs, 696-698. Accusative, 699-702. Ablative, 703-707. Locative, 708-709. Other Endings, 710. Correlative Adverbs, 711. Sentences as Adverbs, 712. (B.) INFLECTION OF THE VERB, 713-1022. General Principles, 713-742. The Stem, 714-720. The Person Ending, 721-731. Nouns of the Verb, 732. Principal Parts, 733-735. Designation of the Verb, 736-737. Theme, 738-740. Classes of Verbs, 741-742. Primitive Verbs, 743-791. Root Verbs, 743-744. Inflection of sum, 745-750. possum, 751-753. dō, 754-757. bibō, serō, sistō, 758. inquam, 759-761. eō, 762-767. queō and nequeō, 768. edō, 769-771. volō, nōlō, mālō, 772-779. ferō, 780-781. Verbs in -ere (The Third Conjugation), regō, 782-783. Verbs in -iō, -ere, 784-791. capiō, 784-785. āiō, 786-787. fiō, 788-790. Others in -iō, -ere, 791. Denominative Verbs, 792-797. Verbs in -āre (The First Conjugation), laudō, 792-793. Verbs in -ēre (The Second Conjugation), moneō, 794-795. Verbs in -īre (The Fourth Conjugation), audiō, 796-797. Deponent Verbs, 798-801. Periphrastic Forms, 802-804. Defective Verbs, 805-817. Redundant Verbs, 818-823. Formation of Stems, 824-919. Variable Vowel, 824-827. The Present System: Present Indicative Stem, 828-840. Present Subjunctive, 841-843. Imperative, 844-846. Imperfect Indicative, 847-848. Imperfect Subjunctive, 849-850. Future, 851-853. The Perfect System: Perfect Indicative Stem, 854-875. Perfect Subjunctive, 876-878. Perfect Imperative, 879. Pluperfect Indicative, 880. Pluperfect Subjunctive, 881. Future Perfect, 882-884. Short or Old forms of the Perfect System, 885-893. Nouns of the Verb: The Infinitive, 894-898. Gerundive and Gerund, 899. Supine, 900. Present Participle, 901-903. Future Participle, 904-905. Perfect Participle, 906-919. List of Verbs arranged according to the Principal Parts, 920-1022. PART SECOND: SENTENCES, 1023-2299. Definitions, 1023-1061. The Simple Sentence, 1023-1025. The Subject, 1026-1034. The Predicate, 1035-1036. Enlargements of the Subject, 1038-1047. Enlargements of the Predicate, 1048-1054. Combination of Sentences, 1055. The Compound Sentence, 1056-1057. The Complex Sentence, 1058-1061. Agreement, 1062-1098. Of the Verb, 1062-1076. Of the Substantive, 1077-1081. Of the Adjective, 1082-1098. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE, 1099-1635. (A.) USE OF THE NOUN, 1099-1468. Number and Gender, 1099-1110. Case, 1111-1437. Nominative, 1113-1123. Nominative of Title, 1114-1116. Of Exclamation, 1117. Vocative Nominative and Vocative Proper, 1118-1123. Accusative, 1124-1174. Of the Object, 1132-1139. Emphasizing or Defining, 1140-1146. Of the Part Concerned, 1147. Of the Thing Put On, 1148. Of Exclamation, 1149-1150. Of Space and Time, 1151-1156. Of the Aim of Motion, xiii xiv 1157-1166. Two Accusatives Combined, 1167-1174. Dative, 1175-1225. I. The Complementary Dative: (1.) The Essential Complement: With Verbs, 1180-1199. With Adjectives, 1200-1204. (2.) The Optional Complement: Of the person or thing interested, 1205-1210. The Emotional Dative, 1211. The Dative of the Possessor, 1212-1216. Of Relation, 1217-1218. II. The Predicative Dative: Of Tendency or Result, 1219-1222. Of Purpose or Intention, 1223-1225. Genitive, 1226-1295. I. With Substantives: In General, 1227-1231. Of the Subject, Cause, Origin, or Owner, 1232-1238. Of Quality, 1239-1240. Partitive, 1241-1254. Of Definition, 1255-1259. Objective, 1260-1262. II. With Adjectives, 1263-1270. III. With Verbs: Of Valuing, 1271-1275. With rēfert and interest, 1276-1279. With Judicial Verbs, 1280-1282. With Impersonals of Mental Distress, 1283-1286. With Verbs of Memory, 1287-1291. Of Participation and Mastery, 1292. Of Fulness and Want, 1293-1294. IV. The Genitive of Exclamation, 1295. Ablative, 1296-1400. I. The Ablative Proper: Of Separation and Want, and of Departure, 1302-1311. Of Source, Stuff, or Material, 1312-1315. Of Cause, Influence, or Motive, 1316-1319. Of Comparison, 1320-1330. II. The Locative Ablative: The Locative Proper, 1331-1341. The Ablative used as Locative: Of Place in, on, or at which, 1342-1349. Of Time at which or within which, 1350-1355. III. The Instrumental Ablative: (1.) The Ablative of Attendance: Of Accompaniment, 1356-1357. Of Manner, 1358-1361. Ablative Absolute, 1362-1374. Ablative of Quality, 1375. Of the Route Taken, 1376. (2.) The Instrumental Proper: Of Instrument or Means, 1377-1384. Of Specification, 1385. Of Fulness, 1386-1387. Of Measure, Exchange, and Price, 1388-1392. Of the Amount of Difference, 1393-1399. Two or more Ablatives Combined, 1400. Use of Cases with Prepositions, 1401-1437. In General, 1401-1409. With the Accusative, 1410-1416. With the Ablative, 1417-1421. With the Accusative or the Ablative, 1422-1425. Combination of Substantives by a Preposition, 1426-1428. Repetition or Omission of a Preposition, 1429-1430. Two Prepositions with one Substantive, 1431-1432. Position of Prepositions, 1433-1437. Use of Adverbs, 1438-1453. Use of Degrees of Comparison, 1454-1468. (B.) USE OF THE VERB, 1469-1635. Voice, 1469-1492. Active, 1469-1471. Passive, 1472-1485. Deponents, 1486-1492. Mood, 1493-1586. The Indicative, 1493-1533. In Declarations, 1493-1498. In Questions, 1499-1533. Yes or No Questions, 1502-1510. Positive and Negative Answers, 1511-1514. Alternative Questions, 1515-1525. Pronoun Questions, 1526-1530. Some Applications of Questions, 1531-1533. The Infinitive of Intimation, 1534-1539. The Subjunctive, 1540-1570. The Subjunctive in Declarations: I. Of Desire: Of Wish, 1540-1546. Of Exhortation, Direction, Statement of Propriety, 1547-1552. Of Willingness, Assumption, Concession, 1553. II. Of Action Conceivable, 1554-1562. The Subjunctive in Questions, 1563-1570. The Imperative, 1571-1586. Of Command, 1571-1580. Of Prohibition, 1581-1586. Tense, 1587-1635. Of the Indicative, 1587-1633. Present, 1587-1593. Imperfect, 1594-1601. Perfect, 1602-1613. Pluperfect, 1614-1618. Future, 1619-1625. Future Perfect, 1626-1632. The Future Active Participle with sum, 1633. Of the Subjunctive, 1634-1635. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE, OR COORDINATION, 1636-1713. Without a Connective, 1637-1642. With a Connective, 1643-1692. Conjunctions, 1643. Copulative, 1644-1666. Disjunctive, 1667-1675. Adversative, 1676-1686. Other Words as Connectives, 1687-1692. The Intermediate Coordinate Sentence, 1693-1713. The Subordinate Idea unindicated by the Mood, 1695-1704. The Subordinate Idea indicated by the Subjunctive, 1705-1713. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE, OR SUB ORDINATION, 1714-2299. xv Definitions and Classifications, 1714-1716. Primary and Secondary Tenses, 1717. Virtual Futures, 1718. Mood of the Subordinate Sentence, 1720-1731. The Indicative, 1721. The Subjunctive: In Indirect Discourse, and in cases of Attraction, 1722-1729. Of Repeated Action, 1730. As in the Simple Sentence, 1731. Tense of the Subordinate Sentence, 1732-1772. Of the Indicative, 1732-1739. Of the Subjunctive, 1740-1772. Sequence of Tenses, 1745-1772. Tense subordinate to an Indicative, 1746-1761. Tense subordinate to a Subjunctive, 1762-1765. Tense subordinate to a Noun of the Verb, 1766-1769. Subjunctive due to another Subjunctive or to an Infinitive, 1770-1772. The Indirect Question, 1773-1791. In General, 1773-1774. Yes or No Questions, 1775-1777. Alternative Questions, 1778-1784. Pronoun Questions, 1785. Original Subjunctives, 1786. Indicative Questions apparently Indirect, 1787-1791. The Relative Sentence, 1792-1837. Agreement of the Relative, 1801-1811. Moods in the Relative Sentence, 1812-1830. Relative Sentences of Purpose, 1817. Of Characteristic or Result, 1818-1823. Of Cause or Concession, 1824-1830. Correlative Sentences, 1831. Relative Sentences Combined, 1832-1834. The Relative introducing a main Sentence, 1835-1837. The Conjunctive Particle Sentence, 1838-2122. Introduced by quod, 1838-1855. quia, 1856-1858. quom or cum, 1859-1881. quoniam, 1882-1884. quotiēns, quotiēnscumque, 1885-1887. quam, 1888-1898. quamquam, 1899-1902. quamvīs, 1903-1907. tamquam, 1908-1910. antequam, priusquam, 1911-1922. postquam, ubī̆, ut, cum prīmum, simul atque, 1923-1934. ut, 1935-1970. ubī̆, 1971. quō, 1972-1976. quōminus, 1977-1979. quīn, 1980-1990. dum, dōnec, quoad, quamdiū, 1991-2009. quandō, 2010-2014. sī, 2015-2115. etsī, tametsī, etiamsī, 2116. quasi, tamquam sī, ut or velut sī, 2117-2122. Connection of Separate Sentences or Periods, 2123-2159. Without a Connective, 2124-2127. With a Connective, 2128-2158. Affirmative Coordination, 2159. Nouns of the Verb, 2160-2299. The Infinitive, 2160-2236. Definitions, 2160-2163. The Infinitive of Purpose, 2164-2165. With Adjectives, 2166. The Infinitive as Object: The Complementary Infinitive, 2168-2171. The Accusative with the Infinitive, 2172-2206. The Infinitive as Subject, 2207-2215. The Infinitive of Exclamation, 2216. Tenses of the Infinitive, 2218. Present, 2219-2222. Perfect, 2223-2231. Future, 2232-2236. The Gerundive and Gerund, 2237-2268. Definitions, 2237-2242. Nominative, 2243-2249. Accusative, 2250-2253. Dative, 2254-2257. Genitive, 2258-2264. Ablative, 2265-2268. The Supine, 2269-2277. Definitions, 2269. Supine in -um, 2270-2273. Supine in -ū, 2274-2277. The Participle, 2278-2299. Definition, 2278. Time of the Participle, 2279-2281. The Attributive Participle, 2282-2286. The Substantive Participle, 2287-2292. The Appositive Participle, 2293-2296. The Predicative Participle, 2297-2299. APPENDIX, 2300-2745. Some Occasional Peculiarities of Verbs, 2300-2307. The Conative Use, 2301-2303. The Causative Use, 2304. The Potential Use, 2305. The Obligatory Use, 2306. The Permissive Use, 2307. Indirect Discourse, 2308-2334. Definitions, 2308-2311. Mood, 2312-2320. Tense, 2321-2324. Pronoun, 2325. Conditional Periods in Indirect Discourse, 2326-2334. Use of Pronouns, 2335-2403. Personal, 2335. Reflexive, 2336-2343. Equivalents for a Reciprocal Pronoun, 2344-2345. Possessive, 2346. Demonstrative, 2347-2364. Determinative, 2365-2370. Pronoun of Identity, 2371-2373. Intensive, 2374-2384. Interrogative, 2385-2386. Relative, 2387. Indefinite, 2388-2403. Numerals, 2404-2428. Classification, 2404. List of Numerals, 2405. Notation, 2406-2411. Some forms of Numerals, 2412-2418. Some uses of Numerals, 2419-2422 Other Numerals, 2423. Fractions, 2424-2428. xvi xvii Prosody, 2429-2739. Rules of Quantity, 2429-2472. In Classical Latin, 2429-2457. Position, 2458. Hidden Quantity, 2459-2463. Peculiarities of Quantity in Old Latin, 2464-2469. Iambic Shortening, 2470-2472. Figures of Prosody, 2473-2510. Hiatus, 2473-2480. Elision, 2481-2492. Ecthlipsis, 2493-2496. Semi-Hiatus or Semi-Elision, 2497. Synaloepha, 2498. Synizesis, 2499. Synaeresis, 2500. Dialysis, 2501. Diaeresis, 2502. Hardening, 2503. Softening, 2504. Diastolé, 2505-2506. Systolé, 2507. Syncopé, 2508. Tmesis, 2509. Synapheia, 2510. Versification, 2511-2739. Definitions, 2511-2548. Numeri Italici, 2549. The Saturnian, 2550-2554. Dactylic Rhythms, 2555-2580. Iambic Rhythms, 2581-2627. Trochaic Rhythms, 2628-2649. Logaoedic Rhythms, 2650-2074. Dactylo-Trochaic Rhythms, 2675-2681. Anapaestic Rhythms, 2682-2690. Cretic Rhythms, 2691-2697. Bacchiac Rhythms, 2698-2706. Choriambic Rhythms, 2707. Ionic Rhythms, 2708-2717. Lyric Metres of Horace, 2718-2737. Lyric Strophes of Catullus, 2738. Index of Horatian Odes and their metres, 2739. Abbreviations used in citing the Authors, 2740-2745. Index of Subjects. Index of Latin Words. LATIN GRAMMAR 1. Latin Grammar has two parts. I. The first part treats of words: (A.) their sound; (B.) their formation; (C.) their inflection. II. The second part shows how words are joined together in sentences. PART FIRST ❧ WORDS PARTS OF SPEECH. 2. The principal kinds of words or Parts of Speech are Nouns, Verbs, and Conjunctions. 3. I. Nouns are Substantive or Adjective. 4. (A.) Nouns Substantive, otherwise called Substantives, are divided, as to meaning, into Concrete and Abstract. 5. (1.) Concrete Substantives denote persons or things. Concrete Substantives are subdivided into Proper Names, which denote individual persons or things: as, Cicerō, Cicero; Rōma, Rome; and Common Names, otherwise called Appellatives, which denote one or more of a class: as, homo, man; taurus, bull. 6. Appellatives which denote a collection of single things are called Collectives: as, turba, crowd; exercitus, army. Appellatives which denote stuff, quantity, material, things not counted, but having measure or weight, are called Material Substantives: as, vīnum, wine; ferrum, iron; faba, horsebeans. 7. (2.) Abstract Substantives denote qualities, states, conditions: as, rubor, redness; aequitās, fairness; sōlitūdō, loneliness. 8. (B.) Nouns Adjective, otherwise called Adjectives, attached to substantives, describe persons or things: as, ruber, red; aequus, fair; sōlus, alone. 9. Pronouns are words of universal application which serve as substitutes for nouns. Thus, taurus, bull, names, and ruber, red, describes, particular things; but ego, I, is universally applicable to any speaker, and meus, mine, to anything belonging to any speaker. 10. Adverbs are mostly cases of nouns used to denote manner, place, time or degree: as, subitō, suddenly; forās, out of doors; diū, long; valdē, mightily, very. 11. Prepositions are adverbs which are used to modify as prefixes the meaning of verbs, or to define more nicely the meaning of cases: as, vocō, I call, ēvocō, I call out; ex urbe, from town. 12. II. VERBS are words which denote action, including existence or condition: as, regit, he guides; est, he is; latet, he is hid. 13. III. Conjunctions connect sentences, nouns, or verbs: as, et, and; sed, but. 14. Interjections are cries which express feeling, and are not usually a part of the sentence: as, ā, ah; heu, alas. 15. There is no Article in Latin: thus, mēnsa may denote table, a table, or the table. A. SOUND. ALPHABET. 16. In Cicero’s time, the sounds of the Latin language were denoted by twenty-one letters (DN. 2, 93). Character Name pronounced A a ah B be bay C ce kay D de day E e eh F ef ef G ge gay H ha hah I i ee 1 2 K ka kah L el el M em em N en en O o o P pe pay Q qu koo R er air S es ess T te tay V u oo X ix eex The names given above are those employed by Roman grammarians. The sound indicated by -ay is only approximate; the true sound is that of the French ê in fête; see 39. The names of the letters are indeclinable; for their gender, see 412. 17. Two other letters were also in use to represent Greek sounds in Greek words; these were always called by their Greek names, and were placed at the end of the alphabet; they are Y, named ü (42), and Z, named zēta (71). 18. Origin of the Alphabet. The Latin alphabet, which originally consisted of capitals only, was adapted from the alphabet of Chalcidian colonies in Italy. 19. Spelling. The signs for the Greek sounds denoted by φ and χ, and perhaps also that for θ, these three sounds being unknown in Latin, were used as numerals (2407). In words borrowed from the Greek the Romans at first represented θ by t, φ by p, and χ by c: as, tūs, incense, for θύος; Poenī, Punians, for Φοίνικες; calx, chalk, for χάλιξ. Occasionally also the Latin mute was doubled: as, struppus, strap, for στρόφος. Later, about the middle of the second century b.c., th, ph, and ch begin to be used: as, cothurnus, boot, for κόθορνος; amphora, jar, for ἀμφόρα; Achaea for Ἀχαιά. In some instances these aspirates were next introduced even into words purely Latin: as, chommodus, affable, for commodus, an affectation ridiculed by Catullus (Cat. 84) and disapproved by Quintilian (1, 5, 20). But pulcher, pretty, is the usual spelling for pulcer (formed by the suffix -cro- from the stem of the verb poliō, I polish). Even Cicero (O. 160) aspirated the c in this word as a concession to popular usage, as he did the t in Cethēgus, Karthāgō, and the p in triumphus, while he retained the unaspirated explosive in the proper names Orcīvius, name of a ‘gens,’ Matō, Otō, Caepiō, and in sepulcrum, tomb; corōna, crown; and lacrima, tear. In a similar manner Greek ρ was at first transcribed by r: as, rumpia, a kind of weapon, for ῥομφαία; but later by rh: as, rhētor, rhetorician, for ῥητωρ. 20. The letters C (first written <) and K were at an early period used promiscuously, and C stood for both unvoiced k and voiced g: as, virco, virgō, virgin. Afterwards K dropped out of general use except in the abbreviations K. or Kal. for kalendae, first of the month, and K. for the proper name Kaesō (Quint. 1, 7, 10). About 300 b.c. the sign < or C was used for the unvoiced k alone, while a separate sign, which became G, was set apart for the voiced g. But C continued to be used for g in the abbreviations C for Gāius, Ↄ for Gāia, and Cn. for Gnaeus. Occasionally q is written for c, almost always before the vowels o and u: as, qum for cum, with; qolunt for colunt, they cultivate; peqūnia, money. But ordinarily q is found before unsyllabic (consonantal) u (v) only (22). 21. Before the introduction of Y and Z (17), u was used for the Greek υ: as, Burrus, later Pyrrhus (Cic. O. 160); and s, or, as a medial, ss, for ζ: as, sōna, belt, later zōna; massa, lump, for μᾶζα; malacissō, I soften, for μαλακίζω. By a blunder, y was occasionally introduced in words of Latin origin: as, lacryma, tear, for lacrima, which was wrongly supposed to be derived from Greek δάκρυ. 22. The characters I and V represent not only the two vowels i and u, but also their cognate semivowels (52) i̭ and ṷ (83), called commonly consonant i and u, but with less ambiguity unsyllabic i and u (82; 83). They are equivalent to the English y and w respectively. 23. In words like maior, simple i was commonly written for the sound of i̭i̭ (153, 2; 82; 83). But Cicero in such cases wrote ii: as, aiiō, I say, Maiia, Troiia (Quint. 1, 4, 11). In the same way Lucretius spelled Graiiugenārum, of Greek- born men, and eiivs, of him, cviivs, whose, occur in inscriptions. Sometimes the same sound is represented by a taller letter, ‘i longa,’ especially in the imperial age: as, maIor, greater. There are also cases in which the two designations were confounded, a double i being written, and one or the other letter made taller: as, eiIvs or eIivs, of him. 24. The tall i, I longa, was used not only to represent unsyllabic i (22), but, beginning with Sulla’s time, also for long vowel i (29, 2, b): as, sIgna, signs; qvInqve, five. It also represents sometimes double i: as, vIs for viīs, in the roads. At the beginning of words it occurs without reference to quantity for both short and long i, and, by mistake, I is elsewhere found for short i. 25. The emperor Claudius (a.d. 41-54) introduced a separate sign for unsyllabic u (22), restricting the sign v to the vowel u (Quint. 1, 7, 26; Ta. 11, 14); but it did not become current. 26. In schoolbooks and most texts of the authors, the vowel u is printed U, u, and the consonant V, v. A character, J, j, was introduced in the 17th century, to indicate the consonant i. But this character is no longer usual in editions of the authors or in schoolbooks. 27. The distinction between u and v is not always made very consistently: q has regularly, and g and s have sometimes, an aftersound of w, best represented by v; but the usual practice is to write u, as in the following disyllables: quōrum, of whom; anguis, snake; suāvis, sweet. qu is always counted as a single sound (177). See also 2504. 28. For the intermediate sound (103) between i and u, as in the first syllable of lubet, libet, it pleases, and in the second syllable of optimus, optumus, best (Quint. 1, 4, 8; 7, 21), the emperor Claudius invented a separate character. It failed of acceptance, as did also the sign which he attempted to introduce for ps. 29. The same characters were ordinarily used to denote both long and short vowels. But at different periods long vowels were sometimes indicated in inscriptions thus: (1.) Long a, e, or u was sometimes doubled: as, aara, altar; paastores, shepherds; leege, by law; ivvs, right. This doubling, which was never frequent, seems to have been introduced into Latin from the Oscan by the poet Accius. It occurs most frequently in inscriptions about the year 150 b.c., but sporadically much later: as, conventvvs, of the assembly; arbitratvv, by 3 4 the decree; and in other stems in -u- (593). (2.) Long i was often denoted (a.) By the spelling ei (after the pronunciation of this diphthong had been changed to ī, 98): as, darei, be given; redieit, hath come back; interieisti, hast died. Some Roman grammarians prescribed this spelling for every long i; others tried to regulate the use of ei for ī by special rules. At the end of the republic, the spelling ei had given way to uniform i. (b.) Since the time of Sulla, by a taller letter (‘i longa’): as, fIxa, fastened (23, 24). (3.) A mark called an apex ( ) was often put over a long vowel: as, fe͆ cit, made; horte͆ nsivs; dvv͆ mviratvs, duumvirate. The apex was written ´ in the imperial age; the form -, which occurs in an inscription, was adopted by the grammarians, and is still in use to mark the long vowels. It may be mentioned that inscriptions which employ the apex are by no means consistent in its use, and that late inscriptions have it over short and long vowels, apparently for decorative purposes. Quintilian 1, 7, 2 prescribes it only for cases which otherwise might be ambiguous: as, málvs (mālus), mast, to distinguish it from malvs (malus), bad. 30. In schoolbooks, a long vowel is indicated by a horizontal line over it: as, āra, altar; mēnsis, month; ōrdō, series. A short vowel is sometimes indicated by a curved mark: as, pĕr, through; dŭx, leader; but this mark is unnecessary if long vowels are systematically marked. Usually the quantity of the vowels in each word is definitely fixed; but in a few cases the same vowel may be now short, now long, as in English the ee of been is pronounced long by some (bean), short by others (bin). Thus (2446) mihi, ibi were sometimes pyrrhics (�, 2522), sometimes iambi (�-, 2521). See for other cases 134, 2443, 2452, 2453. Such vowels of variable quantity are termed common and marked � or �: as mihī̆, to me (2514). PRONUNCIATION. 31. The pronunciation of Latin sounds may be approximately determined: (a) from the description of the native grammarians and incidental allusions in other Latin authors; (b) from variations in spelling; (c) from the Greek transliteration of Latin words; (d) from the Latin transliteration of foreign words; (e) from the development of the sounds in languages derived from the Latin. VOWELS. 32. Vowels are sounds which are produced by the vibrations of the vocal chords (this may be easily felt by placing a finger on the throat at the Adam’s apple) and without any audible friction or any obstruction anywhere in the passage above the vocal chords. The difference in the sound of the vowels is due to the different shape which the position of the tongue and the lips gives in each case to the cavity of the mouth. During the pronunciation of pure vowels no air escapes through the nose. 33. The simple vowels, a, e, i, o, u (y), are either long or short. The sound of a long vowel is considered to be twice the length of that of a short. 34. That a long vowel is equal to two shorts is a rule of metrical theory (see 2515). In actual pronunciation, there were undoubtedly various degrees of length, as in English: e.g., sea, seize (long), cease (half-long). QUANTITY OF VOWELS. The quantity of vowels must in general be learned by observation; but some convenient helps for the memory may be found in 2429; and the quantity of many vowels may be ascertained by the general principles given in 35 and 36. Except in the case of Hidden Quantity (2459), the quantity of vowels is in general ascertained from verse. But some information may also be gleaned from such rhetorical prose as exhibits well defined habits in the rhythmical endings selected for sentences (clausulae, Cic. O. 191-226). (A.) SHORT VOWELS. 35. A vowel is short: (1.) Before another vowel or h (124): as, eōs, ēvehō; compare taceō with tacēre. For exceptions in classical Latin, see 127; for exceptions in early Latin see 126. (2.) Before nt and nd (128) if not the result of contraction: as, calendae, centum; compare amant, amandus, with amāre. (3.) Before final t and m, and, in words of more than one syllable, before final r and l (132): compare amat, amem, with amās and amēs. (B.) LONG VOWELS. 36. All vowels are long which are: (1) Weakened from a diphthong (96-101; 108), or which are the result of contraction (118): as, concīdō from caedō; cōgō from co-agō. (2) Lengthened by compensation (121): as, quīnī for *quincnī. (3) Before nf, ns, often before nc followed by a consonant, and, in some cases, before gn (122). PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS. 37. The following English sounds come nearest to the Latin pronunciation of the vowels: 38. LONG VOWELS. ā had the sound of a in father; ē that of a in fate (but see 39); ī that of i in machine; ō that of o in tone; ū that of u in rule. 39. It must be noted, however, that all English long vowels, save a as in father, are more or less diphthongal, that is, 5 6 they become gradually closer (46); a in fate ends in a vanishing sound of ee (not heard in the ê of French fête), and o in no ends in the sound of oo. Similarly the long e sound in he becomes closer and ends in a sound similar to the y in year. In Latin all long vowels had one sustained sound. 40. Short vowels. a sounded approximately like the English a in the first syllable of aha; e, i, o, and u sounded like e in step, i in pit, o in obey, and u in pull respectively. 41. Latin short a did not differ, except in quantity, from long ā; it never had the ‘flat’ sound of English a in pat. In the case of the other vowels, i, e, o, and u, the long vowels were closer (46) than the short ones. This is the same difference which the English shows in keen (long and close) and kin (short and open); pool (long and close) and pull (short and open). For this reason, open i is sometimes represented by e in inscriptions: as, anema for anima, soul; and vea was the rustic pronunciation for via, road (Varro, R. R. 1, 2, 14). 42. Y, which was a sound borrowed from the Greek (17), sounded like German ü. The sound, which is missing in English, is formed with the tongue in position for i (in kin) and the lips rounded as for oo (in moon). CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS. 43. Vowels are divided according to the position of the tongue. Latin i and e are called front vowels, because the front part of the tongue is elevated. This elevation is greater for i than for e. Latin o and u are called back vowels, because they require an elevation of the rear part of the tongue. This elevation is greater for u than for o. Latin a holds an intermediate position, no part of the tongue being raised, while the front part is depressed. 44. In the formation of i and e, the tongue approaches the hard palate; hence these two vowels are also called palatal vowels. Similarly, o and u are called velar or guttural vowels, because in their formation the tongue approaches the soft palate (vēlum palātī). 45. o and u require a rounding of the lips (labia); hence they are called labial vowels. The same is true for y. 46. Comparing the vowels in English keen and kin, it will be noted that the passage between the tongue and the hard palate is narrower in the former than in the latter case. The ee in keen is therefore said to be a narrow or close vowel, while the i in kin is wide or open. See 41. DIPHTHONGS. 47. Two unlike (43-46) vowels pronounced under one stress and as one syllable form a Diphthong. All diphthongs are long. In all diphthongs the transition from one vowel to the other is gradual. A diphthong is, therefore, not formed simply by pronouncing two vowels in succession, but the vocal organs pass through all the intermediate positions and consequently the sound is constantly changing. 48. In their origin diphthongs are of two kinds: (a.) primitive diphthongs: as in foedus, treaty; aurum, gold; or (b.) secondary diphthongs, the result of vowels meeting in formation, composition, or inflection: see 120. 49. The diphthongs which occur in classical Latin are au, ae, oe, and the rare ui and eu. au sounded like ou in house. ae had the sound of short Latin a rapidly combined with the sound of e in English men. But it is the common practice now to give to ae the sound of ay or ai in ay, aisle, although the difference between Latin ae and the earlier ai from which it descended is thus obliterated. oe had the sound of short Latin o rapidly followed by the sound of e in English men. But it is now customary not to distinguish between Latin oe and oi, and to give to both the sound of oi in boil. ui is pronounced by combining Latin short u and i (40, 41) with the stress on the i like French oui; eu by combining Latin short e and u with stress on the u. 50. Besides these, the following diphthongs occur in the older inscriptions: ai pronounced as ai in aisle; ei as ei in eight; oi as oi in boil; and ou which sounded very much like the final o in no, go, which is really a diphthong (see 39). CONSONANTS. 51. Consonants are formed by stopping the breath somewhere in the cavity of the mouth or by squeezing it through a narrow channel or aperture. 52. Semivowels. There is no sharp line of demarcation between consonants and vowels. Some vowels in unsyllabic function (82, 83) notably i (i̭) and u (ṷ ) (corresponding to English y and w), though usually classed as consonants, are so closely related to the vowels that they are termed semivowels (2504). To these may be added also the liquids l and r. Contact of the semivowels i and u with their corresponding vowels i and u is avoided in classical times. See for -vu- 107, c; for -quu- 157; and for -i̭i- 104, c (on obi̭iciō); 458 (Bōī for *Bōi̭ī). See 153, 3. PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS. 53. Most of the consonants are pronounced as in English. The following points must be noticed: 54. b before a surd, as s or t, has the sound of p. The spelling b is here simply etymological: as, abs, pronounced aps (the b retained in spelling because of ab); urbs, pronounced urps (the b retained because of the oblique cases urbis, urbī, etc.); obterō, pronounced opterō (Quint. 1, 7, 7), where the spelling of the preposition ob was kept (164). 55. c has always the sound of English k. 56. d before the surd s is pronounced t; the spelling d is preserved for etymological reasons only: as, adsum, pronounced atsum. 57. g always has the sound of English g in go, never that of g in gentle. gu, when it makes one syllable with the following vowel, is pronounced like English gw: as, sanguine like sanguine. 7 8 58. h has a weak sound as h in British English (Southern), and by some was not counted as a consonant. Consequently the same uncertainty existed as to initial h. The omission of initial h is recognized in classical Latin for ānser (originally *hānser). Elsewhere the omission of initial h in spelling, as ostia for hostia, is rare until the third century a.d. Very rarely h is written between two vowels to denote that each should be pronounced separately (like our diaeresis in coëxtensive): as, ahēneus, bronze, with aē separate (116 a); but aes, bronze, with diphthongal ae. 59. Unsyllabic (22) or consonant i has the sound of English y in year. 60. There were two varieties of l. One was like the English l, guttural in character, because in its pronunciation not only the blade (front part) of the tongue touched the gums, but in addition to this the rear part of the tongue was elevated toward the soft palate. The other l was purely dental, and formed without such back elevation. This second variety appeared in the combination ll, or whenever l was followed by the front vowels (43) e or i, or when it was final. Elsewhere l was guttural. 61. From the earliest times final m in unaccented syllables had a faint sound or was even inaudible (Quint. 9, 4, 39). Consequently it is often omitted in writing in the older inscriptions both before an initial vowel or consonant: as, pocolo for pōcolom; oino for oinom (ūnum), and the grammarian Verrius Flaccus proposed to write only half an M for final m before a vowel. In prosody, therefore, final m did not prevent elision (2493). The same is seen in prose in cases like animadvertō, I pay heed to, from animum advertō, I turn my mind toward (395); vēnīre, to be sold for vēnum īre, to go to sale (1165). But in monosyllables where m closes the accented syllable, it did not vanish (2494, 2495), and this difference in the treatment of final m is reflected in the Romance languages. 62. n stands for two sounds. It represents the dental nasal, as n in English now. But before the gutturals k, c, g, q, and the compound x (= cs), it represents the guttural nasal which is written ng in English sing, wrong. This second n is sometimes called n adulterīnum or ‘spurious n,’ thus: nc (in avunculus) as in uncle; ng (in angulus) as in angle; ngu (in sanguine) as in sanguine; nqu (in inquit) as inkw in inkwiper; nx (in pīnxit) as in lynx. 63. Dental n before s had a reduced sound, and is therefore sometimes omitted in writing: as, cesor for cēnsor; cosol for cōnsul, in older inscriptions; and fōrmōsus by the side of fōrmōnsus; vīcēsimus by the side of vīcēnsimus, Cicero omitted the n in the adjective suffix -ēnsis: as, forēsia, of the forum; hortēsia, garden plants. 64. q, in classical Latin, appears only in the combination qu, sounded like English qu or kw (27). r was trilled. 65. s, in classical Latin was always unvoiced (surd, 75) like English s in so, sin, never voiced (sonant, 75) as English s in ease. su, when it makes one syllable with the following vowel, is like sw in sweet (27). 66. In old Latin, final s after a short vowel and before a consonant seems to have been reduced in sound or to have disappeared altogether. In the older inscriptions it is often omitted in the ending of the nominative singular -us, and in the pre- Ciceronian poets final s often does not make position (2468). But such omission was considered vulgar in Cicero’s time (Cic. O. 161; Quint. 9, 4, 38). 67. In the archaic period Latin s stood also for the voiced sibilant (English s in ease, z in zeal), as in asa, altar (154). 68. t is always sounded as in time, never as in nation. The pronunciation of ci and ti with the c and t as sibilants (as in English cinder, nation) is very late. 69. v is like the English w. 70. x is a compound consonant, standing for cs, and so sounded, never as English gs or gz. 71. z, being a Greek sound, should have retained its Greek pronunciation. This differed in the different dialects; in the Attic of the fourth century b.c. it was approximately that of English z in zeal, while its earlier value was zd. The Romans had great difficulty in pronouncing this sound (Quint. 12, 10, 27 f.), but the grammarian Velius Longus expressly states that it should not be pronounced as a compound sound (zd). 72. About 100 b.c. the combinations ch, ph, and th were introduced in Greek words to represent χ, φ, and θ; as Philippus, for the older pilipvs. Somewhat later these combinations were in general use in some Latin words (19). ch is thought to have been pronounced like kh in blockhead, ph as in uphill, and th as in hothouse. But in practice ch is usually sounded as in the German machen or ich, ph as in graphic, and th as in pathos. CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS. 73. Explosives. Consonants which are formed by stopping the breath in the oral cavity and then suddenly removing the obstruction are called explosives. They cannot be prolonged in sound. They are: c, k, q, g; t, d; p, b. These are often called mutes. 74. Continuants. Consonants which may be prolonged in sound are called continuants. They are:...

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