Lard, Lice and Longevity niod_futselaar-lard-def.indd 1 10-11-2008 12:53:28 studies of the netherlands institute for war documentation board of editors: Madelon de Keizer Conny Kristel Peter Romijn i Ralf Futselaar — Lard, Lice and Longevity. The standard of living in occupied Denmark and the Netherlands 1940-1945 isbn 978 90 5260 253 0 2 Martijn Eickhoff (translated by Peter Mason) — In the name of science? P.J.W. Debye and his career in Nazi Germany isbn 978 90 5260 327 8 niod_futselaar-lard-def.indd 2 10-11-2008 12:53:28 Lard, Lice and Longevity The standard of living in occupied Denmark and the Netherlands 1940-1945 Ralf Futselaar a Amsterdam 2008 niod_futselaar-lard-def.indd 3 10-11-2008 12:53:28 isbn 978 90 5260 253 0 © 2008, Ralf Futselaar All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, by photoprint, microflm or any other means, nor transmitted into a machine language without written permission from the publisher. Cover design: Jos Hendrix Lay out: Hanneke Kossen Printed in the Netherlands Aksant Academic Publishers, po Box 2169, nl-10oo cd Amsterdam, www.aksant.nl in co-operation with Transaction Publishers, www.transactionpub.com niod_futselaar-lard-def.indd 4 10-11-2008 12:53:28 Foreword In retrospect, even beginning to write this book was pure folly. When I applied to a position at the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation in 2001, I and others were surprised they hired me, an aspiring medievalist, to study the Second World War. I was, and am, very happy with this remarkable decision, but it did mean I embarked on this project, the frst book-length academic work of my life, with only a dim knowledge of the period which I was to study. Overcoming this prob- lem would not have been possible without the support and help of the Institute’s knowledgeable and enthusiastic staff. Not only, moreover, did I fnd a source of nigh unlimited knowledge of the Second World War, I also found a friendly work environment, where I have come to feel very much at home. My task was not, however, to remain in the comfortable surroundings of the Institute’s palazzo on the Herengracht, but to venture out into Europe, and do internationally comparative research. Moreover, I was to be trained to become a full-fedged economic historian. This training I found primarily in the Posthumus Institute, and its European counterpart, the ester network. I am much indebted to all those who attended our sessions, but especially to Herman de Jong, Jan Pieter Smits, Brigitte Widdershoven and Patrick O’Brien, who provided me with exten- sive advice and friendly encouragement. I also learned a great deal through the Economic History Society, the annual conferences of which proved both good fun and highly educational, and which organised the excellent Residential Training Course in Manchester, in the closing weeks of 2002. A fnal phase of my postgrad- uate education took place at the Erasmus University in Rotterdam, where Deirdre McCloskey introduced a small group of graduate students to the mysteries of eth- ics, microeconomics and the work of Adam Smith. Those who were there will have no diffculty recognising the many instances where our discussions inspired me in writing, albeit about a seemingly different subject. I eventually decided to focus on Denmark and the Netherlands as the two countries to be compared in this study. The fact that I did not speak or understand Danish proved less of a hindrance than I had initially feared. Annemiek Langen proved able, impressively, to teach me the basics of the language in a matter of weeks, and Danish hospitality did the rest. Throughout this project, I have met with great kindness and co-operation in Denmark. Claus Bundgård Christensen, Niels Wium Olesen, Flemming Just, Mogens Rostgaard Nissen, Steen Andersen and the late Henrik Nissen, are just some of the colleagues who helped me on v niod_futselaar-lard-def.indd 5 10-11-2008 12:53:29 vi | Lard, Lice and Longevity my way. The archivist Svend Ahrensbach helped me to gain access to the closed archives of Copenhagen’s City Court and, spectacularly, to a separate room to study them in. Finally, I must express my gratitude to the inhabitants of Bofælleskab Stavnsbåndet who welcomed me in their midst in the dark winter months of 2003. I learned a great deal from them, both about Denmark, and about its remarkable language. That I frst learned the Danish word hygge there, is ample evidence of the reception I received. In spite of all my newly acquired linguistical skills and knowledge, my research did pose ever new problems. The demographic and epidemiological differences between the two countries, which I had initially thought of as barely signifcant, proved far more problematic than I had foreseen. Both in the interpretation of my data, and in solving the bewildering information that emerged from it, I was kindly helped by many people. In 2004, both The Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure, and Anne Hardy at the Wellcome Trust Centre for the History of Medicine, kindly reviewed and criticised my fndings. Sandy Cairn- cross, of the London School for Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, helped me on my way in the study of hygiene. Tonny Terpstra of Utrecht University and Jeanne de Vries of Wageningen Agricultural University did their best to save me from all- too grave blunders in food science. The research group of the kncv Tuberculosis Fund, and especially Nico Nagelkerke, Paul Eilers and Martien Borgdorff, pro- vided me not only with essential data, but also with incisive criticism and extensive information. The amount of time that people from entirely different disciplines were willing to sacrifce to a wandering and ever-bewildered historian was remark- able, and very much appreciated on my part. At various times, elements of this project were critically assessed by Ben Wubs, Angela van Son and Gerard Trienekens. I am grateful for their efforts, and our discussions, which helped shape the arguments laid out below. Suzanne Lommers contributed a wealth of data and insight. She was a remarkable undergraduate, and I have no doubt that her PhD thesis will soon prove as astounding as her previous work. Two other historians, Hein Klemann and Hans Blom, deserve spe- cial mention. As my supervisors, they worked hard as the main guardians of the project, prevented many mistakes, corrected numerous errors and, importantly, always remained optimistic, even when I myself no longer was. Of course, no-one lives by research alone. (Although it would be worth a try, I think.) In the process of preparing this thesis, I have received fnancial support from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientifc Research, the Amsterdams Uni- versiteitsfonds, and the Faculty of Arts of the University of Amsterdam. I have had the great opportunity of teaching at Utrecht University and the Erasmus Univer- sity in Rotterdam. Like many academics, I am more indebted to my students than they might realize. With money secured a place to live was all I needed. Fleming and Helle Grøn-Jenssen helped me to a house in Denmark (theirs, to be precise), niod_futselaar-lard-def.indd 6 10-11-2008 12:53:29 Foreword | vii and Boudien Israels kindly offered me living space in Abcoude in the frst months of the project. Most of the past years, I have lived with great pleasure in the Woon- groep Oude Rai, Amsterdam, whose various inhabitants I heartily thank for their company, tolerance, and support. niod_futselaar-lard-def.indd 7 10-11-2008 12:53:29 niod_futselaar-lard-def.indd 8 10-11-2008 12:53:29 Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1 The why and how of comparative research 6 Denmark and the Netherlands 10 Chapter 2 Small States in a Total War 12 Introduction 12 The economics of shortage 14 The coming of control: 1914-40 18 Model occupations: 1940-42 22 Crumbling order: 1943-45 27 After liberation 33 Conclusion 36 Chapter 3 The Mystery of the Dying Dutch 38 Measuring wartime mortality 39 The Dutch Hunger winter 45 Before the Hunger winter 48 Causes of death 50 Tuberculosis 53 Diphtheria 55 Dysentery 57 Infuenza 59 Diseases compared 60 The international context 61 Conclusion 63 Chapter 4 Feeding the People 64 Introduction 64 The birth and growth of food administrations 66 Rationing: fair and ftting 69 The agricultural transformation 72 The Hunger winter and its aftermath 77 Nutrition compared 80 Conclusion 87 niod_futselaar-lard-def.indd 9 10-11-2008 12:53:29