Ying Wang Language Ideologies in the Chinese Context Developments in English as a Lingua Franca Editors Jennifer Jenkins Will Baker Volume 12 Ying Wang Language Ideologies in the Chinese Context Orientations to English as a Lingua Franca ISBN 978-1-5015-1168-4 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-1-5015-0370-2 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-1-5015-0366-5 ISSN 2192-8177 Library of Congress Control Number: 2020933304 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2020 Walter de Gruyter, Inc., Boston/Berlin Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com To Wei and Boheng Acknowledgement I would like to thank De Gruyter Mouton for their support and patience with pub- lishing this book and especially Kirstin Boergen for providing timely and neces- sary information. I owe particular debts of gratitude to the series co-editors Jennifer Jenkins and Will Baker. I spent longer time in writing this book than I was imagining. I appreciate their understanding, support, and trust, without which I would not have been able to get this book into shape for publication. I thank them for their valuable and detailed feedback on the proposal and the manuscript. Jennifer has always been a source of inspiration and encouragement, as my Phd supervisor and then an advisor, colleague and friend since she introduced me to the field of ELF research. Will has always provided me with guidance and information at all levels, as an advisor and colleague. I have benefited substantially from the dis- cussion with him, and his comments on my manuscript have greatly motivated my reflection and sharpened my minds. I am indebted to the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics at the University of Southampton. I designed the MA module entitled Language ideologies in a globalising world when I joined the staff in 2015. Many ideas incorporated in the book were developed and evolved during my designing and running of the module. Colleagues in the department and students taking the module have all contributed to the development of ideas. My thanks go to Laura Dominguez and Marion Dem- ossier for their support in getting me on the sabbatical leave that made writing the book possible. I would like to thank members in the Centre for Global Englishes, whose ideas, opinions, agreements and disagreements have combined to shape my thinking and driven me forward to explore L1-based imagined communities as a rarely researched dimension in ELF research. I thank Sonia Moran Panero for her generous collegiality when I presented ideas of the book in a department seminar. I am grateful to Zhichang Xu from Monash University for his time and exper- tise on the manuscript as well as the information that he provides regarding the research on English in China. I need to note my profound gratitude to Wen Qiufang from Beijing Foreign Studies University, who has been generously con- tributing to my understanding of controversies of English as a lingua franca in relation to China, which has been core to my research. I thank all the participants in this study, whose valuable and, sometimes, extensive contribution have laid the material foundation of the book. I need to thank Xiaoqiong Hu from China Three Gorges University for her assistance and support during my data collection among university students. I thank Yan Qin and Ke Wang for their assistance with access to the participants in different professions and for the friendship over the years to help me to focus on my research. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501503702-202 Table of Contents Acknowledgement   VII 1 Introduction   1 1.1 Where the study starts   1 1.2 English dilemmas for Chinese individuals   5 1.3 English as a lingua franca: A new perspective on English in China   9 1.4 Chinese English as a lingua franca (ChELF): An ideological focus   13 1.5 Legitimacy and ideology   18 1.5.1 A critical perspective   18 1.5.2 Legitimacy as an ideological attribute   19 1.5.3 Legitimacy as an ideological process   21 1.5.4 Researching the legitimacy of ELF   22 1.6 The structure of the monograph   25 2 China and the globalisation of English   31 2.1 The globalisation of English   31 2.1.1 The spread of English   31 2.1.2 Global, local and glocal   32 2.1.3 Blurring boundaries   33 2.1.4 A case of similects   34 2.2 English, power and English users   35 2.2.1 A native/non-native divide   35 2.2.2 Power relations in English   39 2.2.3 Standard English ideology   41 2.2.4 Agency and new power relations   43 2.2.5 Summary   44 2.3 English and China   44 2.3.1 English for national agendas   45 2.3.2 English for individual expressions   47 2.3.3 Chinese speakers’ perceptions   50 2.3.4 Summary   53 2.4 From ELF to ChELF   54 2.4.1 The position of L1   54 2.4.2 An issue of community   56 2.4.3 An issue of boundary   58 X   Contents 2.4.4 An issue of territoriality   59 2.5 Conclusion   60 3 Language ideologies: From languages to Englishes   63 3.1 Theoretical departures   64 3.1.1 A social-theoretic inquiry   65 3.1.2 Structure and agency   67 3.1.3 Neutrality versus criticality   70 3.1.4 From level to scale   71 3.2 Languages and language ideologies   73 3.2.1 Languages: What are they?   73 3.2.2 The nature of language ideologies   75 3.2.3 Semiotic process   78 3.2.4 Orders of indexicality   79 3.2.5 Language users’ identities   82 3.3 Language ideologies in the spread of English   84 3.3.1 English as a national language   85 3.3.2 English as a global language   88 3.3.3 English as a localized language   92 3.3.4 English in motion   95 3.3.5 Summary   97 3.4 Language ideologies and ELF   98 3.4.1 An overview: From attitudes to ideologies   98 3.4.2 Ideologies and institutions in current ELF research   103 3.4.3 Language ideologies and English change   105 3.5 Conclusion   109 4 Researching Chinese speakers’ language ideologies   111 4.1 Research questions   111 4.2 Methodology   112 4.3 Fieldwork   117 4.4 The data   120 4.5 Analytical procedure   122 4.6 Conclusion   125 5 Orienting to Chinese speakers’ ELF   126 5.1 Questionnaires   126 5.1.1 English experience   127 5.1.2 Linguistic orientation   133 5.1.3 Self-labelling   137