Laarim Grammar Book Authors: Clement Lopeyok Joseph Michael Vorgol Lochule Joseph Celestine Lolar Lolar John Hillary Anjelo Lomong Lojakoi James Lotabo Loduko Marino Kolipoth Lopirimoi Logwemoi Peter Marino Jusphine Kadong Peter Mary Natome Kamilo James Lokwangan Lokwar Konyen Joseph Lokiriam Fourth Edition SIL-Sudan 1 This book is used to teach how certain words correctly fit together in phrases, caluses, and sentences. Contact Address: Laarim Translation and Literacy Project c/o SIL-Sudan P.O. Box 64 Juba Sudan © 2013, Laarim Translation and Literacy Project Fourth Edition February 2013 Publisher: SIL-Sudan Place of Publication: Juba 2 Introduction In the Laarim language there are several different types of words: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, location words, connectors, and others. We will learn about these in this book. We will also learn about how the words go together into groups of words called phrases, clauses, and sentences. The words and how they go together are called grammar. Learning about the words and groups of words in Laarim can help you become a better reader and writer. It is especially important for those writing books and translating Scripture to understand the lessons of this book. The lessons of the Laarim Consonant and Vowel Book should be learned before learning from this book. Most examples sentences in this book come from the stories Abaak Ngaai Õlõõ (Women), Nyekuta cĩ Kẽlẽgẽ cĩk Ayak Otoo (Hare), Kabbĩrrẽn kĩ Tulluuwu (Squirrel), and Et cĩ Ẽgẽẽnyĩ cĩ Nyatĩ (Wiseman). Some words such as ‘consonant’ and ‘vowel’ are used in this book without being explained. These words are explained in the Laarim Consonant and Vowel Book. If you forget their meaning, you can look them up in the glossary at the back of this book. There are many new words in this book which are used to explain the grammar of Laarim. Each new word is underlined and explained when it is first used. If you later see the word and forget what it means, you can also find it explained in the glossary at the back of the book. This book can be taught to participants in a workshop. A person can also use this book to teach himself/herself without a workshop or instructor. You should read each lesson and then immediately do the exercise following the lesson. The exercise will help you test your understanding of the lesson. The answers to the exercises are in the back of the book. After completing an exercise, immediately check your answers to see how well you have understood. For each of your incorrect answers, try to understand the correct answer. Ask other Laarim if you need help. 3 Contents Introduction..................................................................................................................................................3 Contents.........................................................................................................................................................4 Spelling rules.................................................................................................................................................5 Nouns...........................................................................................................................................................12 Relational Nouns.........................................................................................................................................22 Verbs............................................................................................................................................................23 Clauses and Sentences................................................................................................................................25 Punctuation Rules.......................................................................................................................................26 Common Word Order in Clauses.............................................................................................................27 Case suffixes................................................................................................................................................27 Subject Markers (Nominative Case).........................................................................................................28 Location Markers (Oblique Case).............................................................................................................33 Possessive Markers (Genitive Case)..........................................................................................................36 Pronouns.....................................................................................................................................................40 Possessive Pronouns...................................................................................................................................42 Time of Ownership of Possessive Pronouns.............................................................................................45 Demonstrative and Indefinite Pronouns...................................................................................................49 Types of Clauses.........................................................................................................................................50 Relative clauses...........................................................................................................................................53 Types of Clauses with Relative Clauses....................................................................................................56 Adjectives....................................................................................................................................................57 Number adjectives......................................................................................................................................61 Demonstrative and Indefinite Adjectives.................................................................................................62 Locatives......................................................................................................................................................64 Adverbs.......................................................................................................................................................65 Question (Interogative) Pronouns.............................................................................................................66 Verb Subject Markers with Final Consonants.........................................................................................69 Verb Subject Markers with Final Vowels................................................................................................77 Verb Object Markers.................................................................................................................................78 Subjunctive Verbs (Irrealis)......................................................................................................................81 Command Verbs (Imperatives).................................................................................................................83 Verbal Nouns..............................................................................................................................................85 Derived verbs..............................................................................................................................................86 Direction Verbs...........................................................................................................................................89 Reciprocal Verbs........................................................................................................................................91 Instrument Verbs.......................................................................................................................................92 Passive (Reflexive) Verbs...........................................................................................................................94 Benefit (Applicative)...................................................................................................................................96 Irregular Verbs...........................................................................................................................................98 Auxiliary verbs.........................................................................................................................................102 Types of Clauses.......................................................................................................................................103 Connectors (conjunctions).......................................................................................................................104 Dependent Clause Connectors Before Main Clauses............................................................................105 Main Clause Connectors..........................................................................................................................108 Dependent clause connectors after main clauses...................................................................................110 Connectors for clauses inside other clauses............................................................................................114 Negatives...................................................................................................................................................116 Direct and Indirect speech.......................................................................................................................117 Glossary.....................................................................................................................................................118 Answers to Exercises................................................................................................................................125 4 Spelling rules In this book, we will learn about attachments to words. Sometimes the attachments come at the beginnings of words, such as k- in kacini ‘I see’. These attachments are called prefixes. Sometimes the attachments come at the end of words, such as –ua in ahaatua ‘tongues’. These are called suffixes. Prefix Suffix kacini ‘I see’ ahaatua ‘tongues’ Sometimes letters change when suffixes are attached to words. In this lesson, we learn spelling rules for letter changes when suffixes are attached. Heavy and Light vowels in the same word In the Laarim Consonant and Vowel Book, we learned the following rule about heavy and light vowels: 1. The vowels in the same word are usually all heavy (without ~) or all light (with ~); heavy and light vowels are usually not mixed together in the same word. Heavy vowels together in the same word Light vowels together in the same word keewu ‘spectacled weaver’ pũrũcẽ ‘clothing’ bekcioit ‘gourd’ bõõcĩlĩlõc ‘mushroom’ logureenit ‘insect’ bũlẽnĩt ‘glory’ We also learned the following rule about the letter a with heavy and light vowels: 2. The vowel /a/ commonly occurs together with either light or heavy vowels in the same word. /a/ with heavy vowels /a/ with light vowels buracoc ‘seed of tree’ cõõlanĩt ‘dung’ kulutanit ‘worm’ kagũranĩt ‘pebble’ atheet ‘sheep’ kẽẽta ‘tree’ Heavy and light vowels with suffixes When suffixes attach to words, there are other rules for heavy and light vowels. Sometimes heavy and light letters are both in the same word, and sometimes light vowels change to heavy vowels. 3. Suffixes with heavy vowels may stay heavy when attached to words with light vowels, as in the following examples. The suffix is bold. 5 Heavy vowels can remain heavy in the suffix when attached to light words ẽ + u = ẽ, u nyẽgẽr nyẽgẽrua ‘fruit’ õ + u = õ, u õngõl õngõlua ‘elephant’ ũ + u = ũ, u bũlũc bũlũcua ‘lake, pond’ ĩ + u = ĩ, u cĩĩth cĩĩthua ‘dikdik’ ĩ + e = ĩ, e lõtĩrĩc lõtĩrĩje ‘spear, small hoe’ ẽ + e = ẽ, e kĩtẽẽn kĩtẽẽnei ‘scorpions’ õ + e = õ, e kõtõd õtõde ‘climb(appl)’ ũ + e = ũ, e kũwũdẽ ũwũde ‘drink(appl)’ õ + o = õ, o bõwõl bõwõlo ‘tortoise(poss)’ ẽ + o = ẽ, o ngẽtẽl ngẽtẽlo ‘rhinoceros(poss)’ ũ + o = ũ, o tũwũlũc tũwũlũco ‘chicken(poss)’ However, other suffixes cause the vowels of the word to change. 4. Some suffixes with heavy vowels cause the vowels of the word to become heavy also, as in the following examples. Sometimes the heavy suffix in bold is in the second column, and sometimes the suffix is in the first column. Heavy vowels in the suffix can cause light words to become heavy õ + i = o, i ngõõt ngootiok ‘winds, breaths’ ĩ + i = i, i wathĩn wathiniok ‘days’ ũ + i = u, i kũthũng kuthungti ‘knees’ ẽ + i = e, i kẽẽnga keengti ‘bellys, stomachs’ ẽ + ẽ = e, e kebereec kẽbẽrẽ ‘eye’ ũ + ẽ = u, e mureec mũrẽ ‘fat, oil’ ẽ + o = e, o leevoc lẽẽvõ ‘clotted blood, scab’ õ + o = o, o lootoroc lõõtõrõ ‘ant’ 5. Suffixes with light vowels may stay light when attached to words with heavy vowels, as in the following examples.1 Light vowels can remain light in the suffix when attached to heavy words u + ẽ = u, ẽ duwwo duwwẽẽn ‘wells’ u + ĩ = u, ĩ muk umuwĩt ‘Think!’ i + ĩ = i, ĩ vir ivirĩt ‘Run!’ e + ĩ = e, ĩ eev eevĩt ‘Cultivate!’ However, some suffixes have vowels that are either heavy or light to match the vowels of the word. 6. Some suffixes have vowels that are heavy when attached to words with heavy vowels and light when attached to words with light vowels. The letter I below means either the vowel ĩ or i. 1 There have not been found any suffixes or words with light vowels that cause heavy vowels to become light. 6 Some suffixes become either heavy or light according to the word it is attached to ĩ + I = ĩ, ĩ kĩbĩl ĩbĩlĩt nẽẽgẽ ‘they stand’ ũ + I = ũ, ĩ kũrũgũm ũrũgũmĩt nẽẽgẽ ‘they dance’ i + I = i, i kijin ijinit nẽẽgẽ ‘they ask’ o + I = o, i kõvõlõng ovolongit nẽẽgẽ ‘they cheated’ u + I = u, i kumuk umuit nẽẽgẽ ‘they think’ a + I = a, i kadaak adait nẽẽgẽ ‘they chew’ Vowels disappearing Sometimes suffixes cause vowels to disappear. 7. When two vowels are joined by a suffix, usually only the second vowel remains, as in the following examples. Usually when two vowels are joined, the first vowel disappears a + u = u maaca maacua ‘husbands’ i + u = u kidoci kidocua ‘hammers’ a + e = e talara talareeta ‘porridges (light)’ u + e = e ngumngumu ngumngumeeta ‘owls’ o + e = e logoro logoreeta ‘gourds’ i + e = e kidori kidoreeta ‘lyres’ ĩ + e = e doolec dõõlĩ ‘child’ õ + ẽ = ẽ nyẽlẽrõ nyẽlẽrẽẽta ‘spears’ o + ẽ = ẽ duwwo duwwẽẽn ‘wells’ a + i = i kuula kuuli ‘tails’ ẽ + i = i õlẽ õlia ‘bull(sub)’ õ + i = i kĩtõ kĩtia ‘scorpion(sub)’ a + ĩ = ĩ laata laatĩna ‘soaked maize flours’ ẽ + ĩ = ĩ kẽlẽgĩt kẽlẽgẽ ‘animal’ e + ĩ = ĩ taliibanĩt taliibane ‘branch’ However, there are some exceptions as seen in the following words: Exceptions where vowels do not disappear aa + i = aai ngaa ngaai ‘women’ ii + e = iie rii riieeta ‘shadows’ u + e = ue tuggu tuggueeta ‘shelters’ u + e = ue tammu tammueena ‘rains’ u + o = uo keteluoc ketelu ‘bed bug’ i + ẽ = iẽ kalli kalliẽẽn ‘whips’ 8. When there are two aa or ĩĩ vowels at the end of a word, y or w may be added before attaching a suffix beginning with a vowel. 7 y or w may be added before attaching a suffix beginning with a vowel aa + o = aawo maa maawo ‘lion(poss)’ aa + a = aawa ngaa ngaawak ‘woman(poss)’ ĩĩ + ẽ = ĩĩyẽ tĩĩ tĩĩyẽẽn ‘crowns’ ĩĩ + a = ĩĩya bĩĩ bĩĩya ‘stone(loc)’ Changing of the letter k Sometimes suffixes cause consonants to change. Inbetween vowels, the consonant k can become w, g, h or disappear. 9. When a suffix is joined, k becomes w when preceded by u, o or õ, as shown in the following examples. When preceded by i or a, k also becomes w when followed by u, ũ, or o. The asterisk * marks vowel combinations which can apply to more than one rule. k -> w when preceded by u, o, õ or when followed by u, ũ, o uk + e = uwe uduk uduwe ‘it was eaten’ uk + a = uwa uduk kuduwa na ‘I ate’ ok + a = owa molok molowa ‘voice (loc)’ ok + e = owe nyiilok nyiilowe ‘monthes’ ok + o = owo molok molowo ‘voice (pos)’ * ok + i = owi molok molowi ‘voice (sub)’ * õk + i = õwi tdõlõk tdõlõwi ‘shrew (sub)’ õk + a = õwa mĩrõk mĩrõwa ‘enemy (sub)’ õk + e = owe mĩrõk mirowei ‘enemy (loc)’ uk + u = uwu uduk kuduwu niia ‘you(sg) ate’ õk + u = owu mĩrõk mirowu ‘enemy (pos)’ ik + u = iwu vatik vatiwua ‘fishing stickes’ ak + u = awu nyeterak nyeterawu ‘bride (pos)’ ek + u = ewu erek erewu niia ‘you(sg) ground’ ẽk + u = ẽwu mẽlẽk mẽlẽwua ‘axes’ uk + ũ = uwu ubuk puwu ‘openǃ’ ẽk + ũ = ẽkũ ẽrẽk rẽwũ ‘grindǃ’ ak + ũ = akũ abak bawũ ‘dwellǃ’ ik + o = iwo ilik iliwoi ‘surroundǃ’ 10. When a suffix is joined, k becomes g when preceded by ũ or õ. k -> g when preceded by ũ or õ ũk + ẽ = ũgẽ katũk katũgẽẽta ‘doors’ ũk + e = uge kũtũk kutugeeti ‘mouthes’ ũk + o = ũgo katũk katũgo ‘door (pos)’ * ũk + i = ugi arũk karugi na ‘I live’ ũk + ĩ = ũgĩ ũrũk ũrũgĩt ‘liveǃ’ ũk + a = ũga ũrũk kuruga na ‘I lived’ ũk + u = ugu ũrũk urugu niia ‘you lived’ 8 ũk + ũ = ũgũ ũrũk ũrũgũ ‘liveǃ’ * õk + i = õgi kõrõõk kõrõõgi ‘compound (sub)’ õk + a = õga kõrõõk kõrõõk ‘compound (loc)’ õk + ĩ = õgĩ õõk õõgĩt ‘untieǃ’ õk + u = ogu õõk oogu niia ‘you untied’ õk + ũ = õgũ õõk õõgũ ‘untieǃ’ 11. When a suffix is joined, k becomes h when followed by a, when surrounded by e, or when ik is followed by ĩ. k -> h when followed by a, when surrounded by e, or when ik is followed by ĩ ak + a = aha goryiak goryiaha ‘thieves’ ek + a = eha erek kereha na ‘I ground’ ĩk + a = iha ũrũbõthĩk kũrũbõthĩha na ‘I reached’ ik + a = iha irik kiriha na ‘I flowed’ * ek + e = ehe erek erehe ‘it was ground’ ik + ĩ = ihi irik irihit ‘they flowed’ 12. When a suffix is joined, k disappears when followed by i, ĩ or e. k -> nothing when followed by i, ĩ or e ak + i = ai vallak vallait ‘claw (sg)’ ak + ĩ = aĩ adak adaĩt ‘they bit’ ak + e = ae adak adae ‘it was bit’ uk + i = ui aduk kadui na ‘I eat’ uk + ĩ = ui uduk uduit ‘they ate’ * ok + i = oi ocok kocoi na ‘I soak’ * õk + i = oi mĩrõk miroit ‘enemy (sg)’ ek + ĩ = ei erek ereit ‘they ground’ ek + i = ei ennek ennei ngaa aniita ‘woman tells you’ ek + e = ee ennek enneet ngaa agẽẽta ‘woman tells us’ ik + i = ii arik karii na ‘I flow’ 13. When a suffix is joined, k becomes c when preceded by e and followed by c. k -> c when preceded by e and followed by c ek + c = ecc kennek kennecca naaga ‘we tell’ 14. The letter k remains k when followed by any other consonant, and when followed by c and preceded by any other vowel. k -> k when followed by a consonant ok + t = okt boyiok boyiokto ‘orphan (pos)’ ĩk + n = ĩkn kĩthĩk kathĩkna naaga ‘we hear’ uk + c = ukc kumuk kamukca naaga ‘we think’ ok + c = okc kiriok kiriokca naaga ‘we go’ 9 ak + c = akc kadaak kadakca naaga ‘we bite’ There are two verbs (uuk-u ‘hit’, tduk-u ‘throw away’) in which final k surfaces as k regardless of the surrounding vowels. kk -> k regardless of surrounding vowels ukk + ũ = uku uuk uuku ‘hitǃ’ ukk + ĩ = uki uuk uukit ‘hitǃ’ ukk + u = uku uuk uuku niia ‘you (sg) hit’ Noun suffix changes There are several changes that can happen with noun suffixes. 15. When the noun plural suffix –iok is joined to a singular noun ending in k, -iok becomes –jok. When the suffix is joined to a noun ending in r or two vowels, -iok becomes –yok. -io -> -jo when preceded by k; -io -> -yo when preceded by r or two vowels l + io = lio buul buuliok ‘eating place’ k + io = okjo kõrõõk korookjok ‘village, compound’ r + io = aryo thiir thiiryok ‘mountain, hill’ ua + io = uayo ulua uluayok ‘funeral’ 16. When a suffix beginning with a vowel is joined to a noun with the singular suffixes – nit, -ĩt, -it, the –i of the suffix can disappear (optional). -it -> t when followed by a vowel nit + i = nti logureenit logureenti ‘insect(sub)’ nit + a = nta kartenit kartenta ‘grass bundle(loc)’ nit + o = nto logureenit logureento ‘insect(poss)’ nit + ak = ntak nyeteranit nyeterantak ‘bridegroom(poss.pl)’ oit + o = okto boyioit boyiokto ‘orphan(poss)’ ait + o = akto goryiait goryiakto ‘thief(poss)’ The final k in boyiok ‘orphans’ disappears when –it is added (boyioit ‘orphan’). However, when the possessive suffix -o is added and the i disappears, the k returns (boyiokto ‘orphan (pos)’). 17. In a few words that add a suffix beginning with e, a final c becomes j. However, sometimes c does not change to j, such as in the word laamuce ‘lace’. In a few words, c -> j when followed by e ac + e = aje lõtarac lõtaraje ‘mat’ ĩc + e = ĩje lõtĩrĩc lõtĩrĩje ‘spear, small hoe’ 10