Kohika Ko whakapaukorero te maunga Ko Tarawera te awa Ko Ngati Awa te iwi Ko Mataatua te waka Ko Te Kohika te pa Ko Tupai, Ko Tutarakauika, Ko Te Rangihiiria, Ko Tuara nga taniwha Ko Matataketake me Tiki nga mauri kohatu Ko Te Awa o Te Atua te kotore Ko Otamaroroa te papa whenua Ko Tamarau te kaitiaki wairua Ko Te Kaokaoroa te akua Ko Waimea, Ko Waitepuru, Ko Awatarariki, Ko Awaitipaku, Ko Awaiti, Ko Omehue, Ko Awakaponga, Ko Te Waikamihi, Ko Mangaone nga awa Ko Te Otaramuturangi, Ko Tiepataua, Ko Te Awakaponga, Ko Te Ahikokoai, Ko Awatarerehika, Ko Te Umuhika nga urupa. Ngati Awa pepeha Whakapaukorero is the mountain Tarawera is the river Ngati Awa is the tribe Mataatua is the canoe Te Kohika is the pa Tupai, Tutarakauika, Te Rangihiiria, and Tuara are the guardians Matataketake and Tiki are the talismans Te Awa o Te Atua is the estuary Otamaroroa is the locality Tamarau is the spirit guide Te Kaokaoroa is the coastline Waimea, Waitepuru, Awatarariki, Awaitipaku, Awaiti, Omehue, Awakaponga, Te Waikamihi and Mangaone are the streams Te Otaramuturangi, Tiepataua, Te Awakaponga, Te Ahikokoai, Awatarerehika and Te Umuhika are the cemeteries. Ngati Awa proverbial saying Kohika The archaeology of a late Maori lake village in the Ngati Awa rohe, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand Edited by Geoffrey Irwin Auckland University Press First published 2004 Auckland University Press University of Auckland Private Bag 92019 Auckland, New Zealand www.auckland.ac.nz/aup © the authors 2004 ISBN 1 86940 315 0 This book is Memoir 9 of the Whakatane and District Historical Society, which has provided assistance with its publication. National Library of New Zealand Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Kohika : the archaeology of a late Ma¯ori lake village in the Nga¯ti Awa rohe, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand / edited by Geoffrey Irwin. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-86940-315-0 1. Ngati Awa (New Zealand people)—Antiquities. 2. Excavations (Archaeology)—New Zealand—Kohika (Rangitaiki Plains) 3. Kohika Site (N.Z.) I. Irwin, Geoffrey. 993.4201—dc 22 This book is copyright. Apart from fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism, or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without the prior permission of the publisher. Designed and typeset by Amy Tansell Printed by Printlink Ltd, Wellington Contents List of tables vi List of figures vii List of plates ix Acknowledgements xiii 1. An introduction to Kohika in historical and archaeological context 1 G.J. Irwin, R.G. Law, I. Lawlor and P. Ngaropo 2. Kohika in the geomorphological context of the Rangitaiki Plains 11 G.J. Irwin 3. The impact of Polynesian settlement on the vegetation of the coastal Bay of Plenty 20 M.S. McGlone and K.L. Jones 4. Excavations and site history at Kohika 45 G.J. Irwin 5. Site chronology 76 G.J. Irwin and M.D. Jones 6. The wooden artefacts from Kohika 83 R.T. Wallace and G.J. Irwin 7. Houses, pataka and woodcarving at Kohika 122 R.T. Wallace, G.J. Irwin and R. Neich 8. Kohika fibrework 149 S. McAra 9. Artefacts of bone, tooth, pumice and pounamu 160 G.J. Irwin 10. Sources of the Kohika obsidian artefacts 168 P.R. Moore 11. The Kohika obsidian artefacts: technology and distribution 177 S.J. Holdaway 12. Faunal remains from Kohika 198 G.J. Irwin, R.K. Nichol, M.A. Taylor, T.H. Worthy and I.W.G. Smith 13. Evidence for diet, parasites, pollen, phytoliths, diatoms and starch grains in prehistoric coprolites from Kohika 217 G.J. Irwin, M. Horrocks, L.J. Williams, H.J. Hall, M.S. McGlone and S.L. Nichol 14. Kohika as a late northern Maori lake village 239 G.J. Irwin Appendix Inventory of wooden and fibre items 249 R.T. Wallace and G.J. Irwin Index 260 List of tables Table 1.1 Frequency of sites by type in the Rangitaiki Plains and surrounding area Table 3.1 Radiocarbon dates, Kohika pollen site (Square D17) Table 5.1 Chronometric data used in the current analysis Table 5.2 Summary posterior distributions for Phase 2 start, Phase 2 end and Phase 2 duration Table 6.1 Characteristics of the bird spear fragments Table 6.2 Comb dimensions (mm) Table 7.1 Estimated dimensions of excavated houses and pataka Table 8.1 Single spiral-wrapped bundles of harakeke (1SWB) Table 8.2 Two-ply spiral-wrapped bundles of harakeke (2PSW) Table 8.3 Three-ply cordage Table 8.4 Three-ply braid variants Table 8.5 Plaited twill with narrow strips Table 8.6 Plaited check with broad strips Table 8.7 Netting and component parts Table 8.8 Other pieces: fragments whose technique is unclear Table 8.9 Contents of boxes (KOH number and technique) Table 9.1 Artefacts from Kohika Table 10.1 Size, roundness and sphericity of Kohika obsidian pebbles Table 10.2 XRF analyses of obsidian samples from Kohika and Maketu Table 11.1 Complete flake mean dimensions (and standard deviation) by exterior scar direction for all areas in the university excavation, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.2 Maximum dimension of cores by scar pattern for all areas in the university excavation, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.3 Maximum dimension for proximal, medial and distal fragments by exterior scar pattern, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.4 Complete flake mean dimensions (and standard deviation) from the Historical Society assemblage by exterior scar pattern, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.5 Mean dimensions for complete platform rejuvenation flakes from all areas in the university excavation, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.6 Mean dimensions for complete flakes of length greater than 23 mm, by exterior scar direction from all areas in the university excavation, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.7 Mean dimensions (and standard deviations) of complete tools compared with complete flakes for all areas in the university excavations, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.8 Mean dimensions (and standard deviation) for pieces with macroscopic edge modification by type for all areas excavated by the university, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.9 Mean dimensions (and standard deviation) for complete tools from the Historical Society assemblage by edge modification type, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.10 Frequency of edge-modified pieces, flakes and cores by area, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.11 Mean length (and standard deviation) of complete flakes with length > 23 mm by exterior scar morphology and area, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.12 Frequency of complete and fragmented flakes of length > 23 mm by area, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.13 Number and weight of flakes and flake fragments of maximum dimension less than 10 mm by area, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.14 Complete flakes with length > 23 mm from the university excavations compared with those excavated by the Whakatane Historical Society, Mayor Island obsidian Table 11.15 Frequency of complete and fragmented tools by type of edge modification and area Table 11.16 Length of notched area of edge modification for all notched tools by region Table 11.17 Maketu and Taupo obsidian technological types Table 11.18 Proportion of cortex on flakes and edge-modified pieces from all areas, Mayor Island obsidian Table 12.1 Minimum number of individual mammals Table 12.2 Human bone by excavation area vi Table 12.3 Dog body parts by excavation area Table 12.4 Taphonomic variables for identified dog bone by excavated area Table 12.5 Estimated ages of dogs at death Table 12.6 Avian taxa represented among identifiable elements in the Kohika assemblage with data from all squares and layers amalgamated Table 12.7 Frequencies of fish species, by area Table 12.8 Fish species frequencies by layer, Area D Table 12.9 Bone class frequencies for jack mackerel, Area D Table 12.10 Shellfish from Kohika Table 12.11 Shell samples from the White House, Area D Table 12.12 Shell samples from the Yellow House, Area D Table 12.13 Shell samples from the Bright Yellow floor, Area D Table 13.1 Samples included in coprolite analyses Table 13.2 Physical attributes of coprolites analysed Table 13.3 Components of coprolites, weights and percentages Table 13.4 Incidence of fish body parts in Kohika coprolites Table 13.5 Seeds from Kohika coprolites Table 13.6 Percentages of inorganic material Table 13.7 Variation in coprolite no.19 List of figures Figure 1.1 The former river courses of the Rangitaiki Plains and communication routes recorded in early maps (Gibbons 1990, Hunia 1977) Figure 1.2 Archaeological sites recorded in the area of the Rangitaiki Plains Figure 2.1 The geomorphology of the Rangitaiki Plains Figure 2.2 Former shorelines and river courses on the Rangitaiki Plains Figure 2.3 Soils of the Rangitaiki Plains in the vicinity of Kohika (after Pullar 1985) Figure 3.1 The Bay of Plenty lowlands with pollen sites underlined Figure 3.2 Pollen site stratigraphy: Kohika pollen site (excavation Square D17), Tunapahore archaeological site complex and Thornton-Atkinson archaeological site Figure 3.3a Kohika, percentage pollen diagram Figure 3.3b Kohika, percentage pollen diagram Figure 3.3c Kohika, percentage pollen diagram Figure 3.3d Kohika, percentage pollen diagram Figure 3.4a Thornton-Atkinson complex, percentage pollen diagram Figure 3.4b Thornton-Atkinson complex, percentage pollen diagram Figure 3.5 Tunapahore A, percentage pollen diagram Figure 3.6a Tunapahore B, percentage pollen diagram Figure 3.6b Tunapahore B, percentage pollen diagram Figure 4.1 A contour map of Kohika showing the location of the excavations Figure 4.2 Some representative section drawings from Area A Figure 4.3 A plan of the excavated features in Area A Figure 4.4 Square B1, north section Figure 4.5 Square B1, south section Figure 4.6 Square B1, plan of features at the base of the excavation Figure 4.7 Square B3, east section Figure 4.8 Square B4, west section Figure 4.9 Square C1, south section Figure 4.10 Square C1, west section Figure 4.11 Square C7, south section Figure 4.12 Square C10, north section Figure 4.13 Area D, the layout of excavation units Figure 4.14 Squares D1 and D2, all sections vii Figure 4.15 Area D, the White House horizon Figure 4.16 Area D, the Yellow House horizon (stakeholes less than 10 cm deep are not shown) Figure 4.17 Area D, the Bright Yellow horizon Figure 4.18 Area D, Squares D12–15, trench Figure 4.19 Historical Society investigations (with some of their notes) Figure 5.1 Summary of the calibrated distributions for the chronometric data given in Table 5.1 Figure 5.2 Posterior distribution for Phase 2, start Figure 5.3 Phase 2, end Figure 5.4 Phase 2, duration Figure 6.1 Bird spear point made from tree-fern trunk Figure 6.2 Twelve digging sticks and one ko footrest Figure 6.3 A weeder blade, a one-piece spade, and four handles of composite digging tools Figure 6.4 Seven complete detachable digging-tool blades, one rough-out and one fragment Figure 6.5 Part of a carving on a ceremonial ko Figure 6.6 Seven broken shafts with terminal knobs, possibly handles from composite tools Figure 6.7 Fifteen beaters and beater fragments Figure 6.8 Four bowls and bowl fragments Figure 6.9 A steering paddle rough-out Figure 6.10 Canoe paddle and paddle fragments Figure 6.11 Canoe hull pieces Figure 6.12 Three canoe seats, one bulkhead and eight other fittings Figure 6.13 Canoe bailers Figure 6.14 Six heru or hair combs Figure 6.15 Six darts or javelins Figure 6.16 Seven potaka or spinning tops Figure 6.17 An adze handle rough-out Figure 6.18 A chisel handle and a chisel socket Figure 6.19 A section of a putorino (flute) Figure 6.20 Two net gauges Figure 6.21 Two thread reels Figure 6.22 Fibre-, net- and rope-working tools Figure 6.23 Ladder Figure 6.24 Wood-splitting wedges Figure 6.25 Pegs Figure 6.26 Items of unidentified function Figure 7.1 A reconstruction of the carved house from the Historical Society (HS) Area Figure 7.2 A reconstruction of the pole and thatch house from the Yellow House floor, Area D Figure 7.3 A reconstruction of the pataka from Area D Figure 7.4 Types of lashing holes on house planks Figure 7.5 Poupou and other vertical house elements from the HS Area Figure 7.6 Door or window parts from the HS Area Figure 7.7 Tumatahuki battens from the HS Area Figure 7.8 Possible fragments of pataka from the HS Area Figure 7.9 Dressed slabs split from pukatea tree trunks, HS Area and Area B Figure 7.10 Timbers recovered from Area D Figure 7.11 The three rafters from Area D Figure 7.12 Detail of rafter tenon joints Figure 7.13 Parameters used to estimate the width of a building in Area D, based on rafter dimensions Figure 7.14 Two parts of pataka from Area D, plus two indeterminate items (KOH30 and 31) Figure 7.15 Detail of the internal and external framing of a superior house Figure 8.1a KOH298. Drawing of two-ply spiral-wrapped bunches of harakeke (2PSW) Figure 8.1b Diagram of technique for making 2PSW Figure 9.1 Bone hei tiki pendant, tooth pendant, bone toggle Figure 9.2 Pounamu adze viii Figure 9.3 Pumice kumara god Figure 10.1 Dimensions of obsidian pebbles from Kohika, Maketu and Otamarakau Figure 10.2 Rb-Sr plots for analysed obsidian artefacts from Kohika (solid symbols) and source samples from Maketu and Taupo Figure 10.3 Zr-Rb plots for analysed obsidian artefacts from Kohika (solid symbols) and source samples from Maketu and Taupo Figure 10.4 Relative proportions of ‘grey pebble-type’ and ‘other grey’ obsidian from Kohika Figure 11.1 Terms used to describe flake fragments. Proximal flakes include a platform, distal flakes have a termination, and medial flakes lack a platform or a termination Figure 11.2 Flakes with different exterior scar patterns. The identification numbers are given in brackets: a (1703), b (1637), uni-directional; c (1907), d (1735), bi-directional; e (1893), sub-radial; f (1688), radial Figure 11.3 Quadrants for assessing scar orientation. The flake is orientated with the platform at quadrant 1 (the figure is based on artefact 161) Figure 11.4 Typology for edge modification: a (2617), b (2163), bifacial; c (2128), heavy; d (1145), e (1687), f (2175), g (1850), light; h (2490), i and j (1822), k (1635), notch Figure 11.5 Dimensions of a complete flake Figure 11.6 Core shapes: a (1525), pebble; b (1747), c (2248), multiple platform; d (2875), e (3179), flake; f (2878), radial Figure 11.7 Platform preparation flakes and flakes with two interior surfaces: a (2882), b (2491), c (1589), d (1752) and e (1588) Figure 11.8 Large flakes from Historical Society: a (94), b (96), c (150), d (161), e (98) and f (158) Figure 12.1 Size frequency distributions of snapper, kahawai and jack mackerel, Area D Figure 12.2 Size frequency distributions of jack mackerel by layer, Area D Figure 12.3 Size frequency distributions of pipi and tuatua, Area D Figure 13.1 Components of Kohika coprolite samples, percentages by weight Figure 13.2 Percentage pollen diagram for Kohika coprolite samples Figure 13.3 Percentage phytolith diagram for Kohika coprolite samples Figure 13.4 Percentage diatom diagram for Kohika coprolite samples Figure 14.1 A schematic view northwards over Area D across the lake to the dunes and the sea. In the left foreground is a reconstruction of Area D during the Yellow House horizon. The houses, canoes, nets and racks on the right represent the artefacts and building timbers found in the Historical Society Area. The palisade follows the topography around the lake. The lakeshore vegetation of raupo, flax and cabbage trees with patches of kahikatea and kanuka scrub is based on the pollen record. The roofed pit and two small covered bins in the bottom right were actually found in Area A. List of plates Plate 1.1 In 1975, Kohika was an inconspicuous, low-lying grassed mound in an area of agricultural swamp drainage. Plate 1.2 A whakanoa ceremony was conducted by Jack Fox, Romana Kingi, Mike Mason, Harry Reneti and Albert Te Rere, of the Ratana, Anglican, Catholic, Ringatu and Presbyterian churches respectively. The kaumatua placed the site and the artefacts into the interim care of the University of Auckland. Plate 1.3 After the discovery of artefacts, the first investigations were undertaken by mem- bers of the Whakatane and District Historical Society. In this 1976 photograph are (from left) Dave White, Ken Moore and the late Anton van der Wouden. The spoil in the background was removed from the drain by a digging machine. Plate 1.4 The University of Auckland excavations of Area D during the season of January, 1976. ix