Knowledge and Systems Science Enabling Systemic Knowledge Synthesis © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Knowledge and Systems Science Enabling Systemic Knowledge Synthesis Yoshiteru Nakamori © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20130520 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-9301-5 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. 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Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC (cid:2) (cid:2) “K20590” — 2013/6/3 — page v — (cid:2) (cid:2) Contents Preface ix Acknowledgments xi 1 IssuesofSystemicSynthesis 1 1.1 YinandYang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1.1 Difficultyinobserving environments . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.2 Difficultyinselecting information . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.1.3 Difficultyincreating knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.2 DiscussionofSystemicThinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3 ComplexityinThoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.3.1 Opinionsinthescientific-actual front . . . . . . . . 12 1.3.2 Opinionsinthesocial-relational front . . . . . . . . 13 1.3.3 Opinionsinthecognitive-mental front . . . . . . . . 14 1.3.4 Mainopinions andtaskdiagram . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.4 DiscussionofSystemicSynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.5 AppendixonOpinionOrganizing Methods. . . . . . . . . . 19 1.5.1 Brainstorming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.5.2 TheDelphimethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1.5.3 Affinitydiagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2 SystemsApproaches 23 2.1 ComplexityandSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.2 Methodological Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.2.1 Cybernetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.2.2 Generalsystemstheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.2.3 Softsystemsthinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.3 SoftSystemsMethodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.3.1 Processofsoftsystemsmethodology . . . . . . . . 35 2.3.2 Softsystemsmethodology: Exercise . . . . . . . . . 38 v © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) “K20590” — 2013/6/3 — page vi — (cid:2) (cid:2) vi CONTENTS 2.4 OrientalSystemsMethodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.4.1 Shinayakana SystemsApproach . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.4.2 WSRSystemsApproach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2.5 HintsforQuestions andExercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 2.6 AppendixonSystemsApproaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 2.6.1 Organizational cybernetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 2.6.2 Criticalsystemsheuristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 2.6.3 Postmodernsystemsthinking . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 2.6.4 Totalsystemsintervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3 AnIntegratedSystemsApproach 61 3.1 PrinciplesofIntegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.2 Intercultural Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.2.1 Incommensurability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.2.2 OccidentalandOrientalcultures . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.2.3 Discussionofintercultural understanding . . . . . . 68 3.3 AnInformedSystemsApproach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.4 AKnowledgeIntegration System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.4.1 Thei-System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.4.2 Discussionofcharacteristics ofthei-System . . . . 74 3.4.3 Typesofintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.5 Application toTechnology Archiving . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.5.1 Knowledgecollection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.5.2 Knowledgearchiving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 3.6 Application toTechnology Roadmapping . . . . . . . . . . 87 3.7 AppendixonSystemsTechniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 3.7.1 TheAnalyticalHierarchyProcess . . . . . . . . . . 90 3.7.2 TheInterpretive StructuralModeling . . . . . . . . 92 4 MathematicalInformationAggregation 99 4.1 ComplexityinDecisionMaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 4.2 DataCollection andScreening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.2.1 Evaluationexperiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.2.2 Datascreening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 4.2.3 Mathematicaldatadescription . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 4.2.4 Datamatrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 4.3 DegreeofFitbetweenRequestsandProducts . . . . . . . . 110 4.3.1 Statisticaldataprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4.3.2 Probabilistic dataprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 4.3.3 Fuzzy-settheoretical dataprocessing . . . . . . . . 118 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) “K20590” — 2013/6/11 — page vii — (cid:2) (cid:2) CONTENTS vii 4.3.4 Directmodeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 4.4 Information Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 4.4.1 Non-additivemeasures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 4.4.2 OrderedWeightedAveraging(OWA)operators . . . 127 4.4.3 Prioritizedmax–minoperators . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 4.5 AnswerstoQuestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 4.6 Application ofSpecialized Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 5 TheEmergenceofKnowledgeScience 143 5.1 KnowledgeRevolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 5.1.1 Thevalueofknowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 5.1.2 Information andknowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 5.1.3 Knowledgemanagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.1.4 Tacitandexplicitknowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 5.1.5 SECIspiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 5.2 EpistemesintheKnowledge-Based Society . . . . . . . . . 149 5.2.1 Towardestablishing anewepisteme . . . . . . . . . 150 5.2.2 SchoolofKnowledgeScience . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 5.3 Approaches toKnowledgeScience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 5.3.1 Approachesfrominformation science . . . . . . . . 153 5.3.2 Approachesfrommanagementscience . . . . . . . 155 5.3.3 Anapproach fromsystemsscience . . . . . . . . . . 157 6 KnowledgeCreationModels 159 6.1 Organizational KnowledgeCreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 6.1.1 Bottom-up Socialization, Externalization, Combina- tion,Internalization (SECI)spiral . . . . . . . . . . 160 6.1.2 Top-down Objectives, Process, Expansion, Closure (OPEC)spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 6.2 AcademicKnowledgeCreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 6.2.1 Inter-subjective Enlightenment, Debate, Immersion, Selection(EDIS)spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 6.2.2 Experimental Enlightenment, Experiment, Interpre- tation,Selection(EEIS)spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 6.2.3 DoubleEDIS-EEISspiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 6.2.4 Hermeneutic Enlightenment, Analysis, Immersion, Reflection(EAIR)spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 6.2.5 Triplehelixmodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 6.3 Application toAcademicResearchEvaluation . . . . . . . . 172 6.4 KnowledgeCreationModeling: Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . 177 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) “K20590” — 2013/6/3 — page viii — (cid:2) (cid:2) viii CONTENTS 7 KnowledgeSynthesisorConstruction 179 7.1 Sociological Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 7.1.1 Structurecomplexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 7.1.2 Agencycomplexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 7.1.3 Actioncomplexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 7.1.4 Universalityofthei-System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 7.2 Application ofInterdisciplinary Integration . . . . . . . . . 192 7.2.1 Scientific-actual front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 7.2.2 Social-relational front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 7.2.3 Cognitive-mental front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 7.2.4 Interdisciplinary knowledge synthesis . . . . . . . . 199 7.3 Thei-System:Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 7.4 AppendixonRiskAnalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 7.5 AppendixonCategoricalClustering Methods . . . . . . . . 202 8 KnowledgeJustification 205 8.1 KnowledgeDiscoveryandJustification . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 8.2 Philosophical Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 8.2.1 Paradigmatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 8.2.2 Falsificationism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 8.2.3 Postmodernsubjectivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 8.3 DiscussionandExercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 8.3.1 Generalspiralofknowledge creation . . . . . . . . 211 8.3.2 Episteme:exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 8.4 TheoryofKnowledgeConstruction Systems . . . . . . . . . 213 8.4.1 Fundamentalpartsofthetheory . . . . . . . . . . . 214 8.4.2 Evolutionary constructive objectivism . . . . . . . . 214 8.5 Application ofIntercultural Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 8.6 FinalExercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 References 221 Index 231 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) “K20590” — 2013/6/3 — page ix — (cid:2) (cid:2) Preface It is said that new knowledge is created by the interaction between explicit andtacitknowledge. However,thisisnotanaturally occurring process. New knowledge emerges as a result of the fusion of high-quality information and knowledge in the brain. But this is not necessarily a process that automat- ically happens. Effort is needed for systemic knowledge synthesis to create andjustifynewknowledge. How can we synthesize various pieces of knowledge systemically? This book tries to answer this question by integrating the ideas in the fields of systems science and knowledge science. Why systems science? Because it originatedasanacademicdisciplineforsolvingcomplexproblemsbysynthe- sizing various pieces of knowledge. Therefore, in Chapter 1 we will discuss someoftheissuesofsystemicknowledge synthesis. Why systemic? Because the whole is not just acollection of parts, but is more than that (Aristotle, 384-322 BC). Analytical methods cannot explain such a phenomenon. In Chapter 2, we will look at systemic synthesis by ap- plying twosystems methodologies, both ofwhichemphasize theimportance ofthehumandimensioninproblemsolving. However,thereisaparadox inthatsystemsscience, whichshouldbein- terdisciplinary byitsverydefinition, suffersfromadisciplinary splitintothe softandhardsystemsapproaches.Thissituationmustbeimprovedifsystems science is to define its mission as the synthesis of diversified information, knowledge, opinions, orvalues. For this purpose, Chapter 3 will introduce a new integrated systems ap- proach called the Informed Systems Approach. As its specific methodology, a knowledge integration model called the i-System (knowledge pentagram) will be introduced. This consists of five dimensions for collecting and syn- thesizing distributed andtacitknowledge. The Informed Systems Approach attempts to integrate soft and hard sys- tems approaches, rather than setting them against each other. It provides for abetter understanding between EastandWest, instead ofassuming that they © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) “K20590” — 2013/6/3 — page x — (cid:2) (cid:2) x PREFACE will never meet, and creates new knowledge based on interdisciplinary, or even intercultural integration of knowledge. This idea will be a precursor to the later chapters on knowledge science. Prior to that, in Chapter 4, some mathematical information aggregation techniques will be introduced, which areusefulwhenlookingatthescientificdimension ofthei-System. Amajorsocialchangeoftheearlytwenty-firstcenturyhasbeencalledthe knowledge revolution. Knowledge science has attracted attention as one of thedrivingforcesofthisnewsociety. Itishopedthatwecandispelthesense of inertia in the integration of knowledge by developing this new discipline. The second half of this book is devoted to the fusion of systems science and knowledge science in order to achieve systemic integration of knowledge. In Chapter5,wewillprovideanoverviewofsomeoftheconceptsinknowledge science andseveralapproaches toknowledge science. The organizational knowledge creation theory provides a rational recipe forgenerating newknowledge, usingirrational, orevenarational, abilities of thehumanmindandculturalfeaturesoftheEast.Wewilldiscuss,inChapter 6,severalknowledgecreationmodelsthathavebeendevelopedfororganiza- tionalaswellasacademicknowledge creation. Knowledge is constructed and consumed by people in organizations and societies. From this observation, it is clear that no generic model of knowl- edge is complete without sociological arguments. In seeking a sociolog- ical underpinning, Chapter 7 will draw upon the structure-agency-action paradigm, inordertoconsiderasociological interpretation ofthei-System. Historically, therehavebeentwomainschoolsofthinking onknowledge creation. Theperspective ofgrouping isthekeydistinction between thecon- textofknowledge discovery andthecontext ofknowledge justification. How- ever, a third approach is required to make knowledge science an academic discipline. With this in mind, in Chapter 8 we will consider how to justify knowledge, and summarize a theory of knowledge synthesis (construction) systems. The science of knowledge science is not science in the narrow sense. It is important to acquire a systemic view through trained intuition, and using methodsofjustifyingnewknowledgewithoutsimplyrelyingonthescientific methodinthenarrowsense. © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) “K20590” — 2013/6/3 — page xi — (cid:2) (cid:2) Acknowledgments FirstofallImustconveymythankstothosepeoplewhogavemethechance to work on such a grand project to create the new discipline of knowledge science. In particular, I have received tremendous support from Professor Shimemura, theformerpresident oftheJapan Advanced Institute ofScience andTechnology,andProfessorNonaka,thefirstdeanoftheSchoolofKnowl- edge Science. Without their direction, Iwouldnot have advanced very farin termsofdeveloping knowledge science. Ihavebeenguidedbytheschoolregulation:Withtheviewpointofknowl- edgecreationasapracticeofnature,individuals, organizations, andsociety, knowledgescienceattemptstoestablishauniteddisciplineofhumanitiesand sciences. Theschoolundertakes educationandresearchtoexplorethemech- anisms ofknowledge creation, accumulation andutilization, under anexcel- lenteducation-research environment.Italsonurturesresearchersandexperi- encedprofessionalswhohaveadvancedknowledgeandapplicationcapabili- tiestoleadtheknowledgesociety,aswellasbroadperspectivesandadequate judgment, andadvanced communication abilities. Next, I would like to thank those who have supported my project from overseas.Alittleaftertheschoolstartedin1998,Iorganizedaninternational symposium on Knowledge and Systems Science, which was held in 2000, andinvitedmanyprominentsystemsscientists.Myintentionwastoestablish a new discipline, knowledge science, based on systems science, which is an academic field with a long history. Knowledge science is interdisciplinarity, asissystemsscience. Since then we have been organizing this international symposium every year, mostly in Asia, and we started publishing the International Journal of KnowledgeandSystemsSciencein2004.Itscurrentversionisnowpublished byIGIGlobal. I wish to thank the following scientists, from among many international contributors,fortheirvaluablesupport:ProfessorJifaCu,theInstituteofSys- temsScienceoftheChinese AcademyofSciences, China;Professor Zhong- © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2)