The English Legal System Eighth Edition Jacqueline Martin 879159_FM_English_i-xx.indd 1 06/07/16 1:21 PM Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SB. Telephone: (44) 01235 827720. Fax: (44) 01235 400454. Lines are open from 9.00–5.00, Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service. You can also order through our website www.hoddereducation.co.uk. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library ISBN: 978 1 4718 7915 9 First edition Published 1997 Second edition Published 2000 Third edition Published 2002 Fourth edition Published 2005 Fifth edition Published 2007 Sixth edition Published 2010 Seventh edition Published 2013 This edition Published 2016 Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Year 2019 2018 2017 2016 Copyright © 2016 Jacqueline Martin The effect of European Law on English Law has been retained in this edition as it will continue to have an effect until negotiations regarding the UK’s exit from the European Union have been completed. All rights reserved. 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Printed in Italy for Hodder Education, an Hachette UK company, Carmelite House, 50 Victoria Embankment, London, EC4Y 0DZ 879159_FM_English_i-xx.indd 2 11/07/16 5:57 PM CONTENTS Preface x 3.1.2 Obiter dicta 23 Acknowledgements xi 3.1.3 Judgments 23 Table of Acts of Parliament xii 3.1.4 Original precedent 24 Table of Cases xv 3.1.5 Binding precedent 25 3.1.6 Persuasive precedent 25 Chapter 1 The rule of law 3.2 The hierarchy of the courts 26 3.2.1 Appellate courts 27 1.1 What is law? 1 3.2.2 Courts of first instance 28 1.1.1 Different types of law 1 3.3 The Supreme Court 28 1.1.2 Differences between criminal 3.3.1 The Practice Statement 29 cases and civil cases 5 3.3.2 Use of the Practice Statement 29 1.1.3 Definition of ‘law’ 7 3.3.3 The Practice Statement in 1.2 Law and morality 8 criminal law 30 1.3 Law and justice 9 3.3.4 The Supreme Court 31 1.4 Rights and duties 10 3.4 The Court of Appeal 32 1.5 The rule of law 11 3.4.1 Decisions of courts above it 32 1.5.1 Dicey 11 3.4.2 Human rights cases 33 1.5.2 von Hayek 12 3.4.3 The Court of Appeal and its own 1.5.3 Joseph Raz 12 decisions 33 1.6 Human rights and the English 3.4.4 The Court of Appeal legal system 13 (Criminal Division) 35 3.5 The Judicial Committee of the Chapter 2 The development of law Privy Council 36 2.1 Customs 15 3.5.1 Judges 36 2.1.1 General customs 15 3.5.2 The Privy Council and precedent 36 2.1.2 Local customs 15 3.6 Distinguishing, overruling and 2.2 Common law 16 reversing 36 2.2.1 Development of common law 16 3.6.1 Distinguishing 36 2.2.2 Definitions of common law 17 3.6.2 Overruling 37 2.3 Equity 17 3.6.3 Reversing 37 2.3.1 The development of equity 17 3.7 Judicial law-making 37 2.3.2 The operation of equity 18 3.8 The effect of an Act of Parliament 39 2.3.3 Equitable remedies 19 3.9 Comparison with other legal 2.3.4 The relevance of equity today 20 systems 40 3.9.1 Codes of law 40 Chapter 3 Judicial precedent 3.9.2 Less rigid precedent 40 3.9.3 Prospective overruling 40 3.1 The doctrine of precedent 23 3.10 Advantages and disadvantages 3.1.1 Ratio decidendi 23 of precedent 40 879159_FM_English_i-xx.indd 3 06/07/16 1:21 PM iv Contents 3.10.1 Advantages 40 5.3.3 Control by the courts 64 3.10.2 Disadvantages 41 5.4 Criticisms of the use of delegated 3.11 Law reporting 42 legislation 65 3.11.1 Internet law reports 42 Chapter 6 European law Chapter 4 Acts of Parliament 6.1 The institutions of the European 4.1 Parliament 43 Union 66 4.1.1 The House of Commons 43 6.1.1 The Council of the European Union 66 4.1.2 The House of Lords 43 6.1.2 The Commission 67 4.1.3 Reform of the House of Lords 44 6.1.3 The European Parliament 68 4.2 Influences on parliamentary 6.2 The Court of Justice of the law-making 45 European Union 69 4.2.1 The government programme 45 6.2.1 Key functions 69 4.2.2 European Union law 45 6.2.2 Preliminary rulings 69 4.2.3 Other influences 45 6.2.3 Discretionary referrals 70 4.3 The pre-legislative process 46 6.2.4 The operation of the European 4.4 Introducing an Act of Parliament 46 Court of Justice 71 4.4.1 Bills 46 6.3 European sources of law 72 4.4.2 Private Members’ Bills 47 6.3.1 Treaties 72 4.4.3 Public and private Bills 47 6.3.2 Regulations 73 4.5 The process in Parliament 48 6.3.3 Directives 74 4.5.1 The Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 50 6.3.4 Decisions 78 4.5.2 Commencement of an Act 50 6.4 Conflict between European law 4.5.3 Example of an Act 50 and national law 78 4.6 Criticisms of the legislative 6.4.1 The effect of European law on the process 51 sovereignty of Parliament 79 4.6.1 Lack of accessibility 52 4.6.2 Other problems 52 Chapter 7 Statutory interpretation 4.7 Parliamentary sovereignty 54 7.1 The need for statutory 4.7.1 Definition of parliamentary interpretation 80 supremacy 54 7.2 Literal approach versus 4.7.2 Limitations on parliamentary purposive approach 82 sovereignty 55 7.3 The literal rule 82 7.4 The golden rule 83 Chapter 5 Delegated legislation 7.5 The mischief rule 84 5.1 Types of delegated legislation 58 7.5.1 Cases using the mischief rule 84 5.1.1 Orders in Council 58 7.6 Rules of language 85 5.1.2 Statutory instruments 58 7.6.1 The ejusdem generis rule 86 5.1.3 Bylaws 60 7.6.2 Expressio unius exclusio alterius (the 5.2 The need for delegated legislation 61 mention of one thing excludes others) 86 5.3 Control of delegated legislation 61 7.6.3 Noscitur a sociis (a word is known 5.3.1 Control by Parliament 61 by the company it keeps) 87 5.3.2 The Legislative and Regulatory 7.7 Presumptions 87 Reform Act 2006 63 7.8 Unified approach 88 879159_FM_English_i-xx.indd 4 06/07/16 1:21 PM Contents v 7.9 The purposive approach 89 9.7 The Woolf reforms 111 7.9.1 The European approach 89 9.7.1 The Civil Procedure Rules 111 7.9.2 Interpreting European Union law 90 9.7.2 Applying the rules in court 112 7.10 Finding Parliament’s intention 90 9.7.3 Effect of the Woolf reforms 112 7.10.1 Intrinsic aids 91 9.8 Appellate courts 113 7.10.2 Extrinsic aids 91 9.8.1 Divisional Courts 113 7.11 The Human Rights Act 1998 94 9.8.2 Court of Appeal (Civil Division) 113 7.12 Conclusion 94 9.8.3 Supreme Court 114 9.9 Appeal routes in civil cases 115 Chapter 8 Law reform 9.9.1 Appeals from the County Court 115 9.9.2 Appeals from the High Court 116 8.1 The need for an independent law 9.9.3 Further appeals 116 reform body 96 9.10 Remedies in civil cases 116 8.1.1 History of law reform bodies 96 9.10.1 Damages 116 8.2 The Law Commission 97 9.10.2 Equitable remedies 118 8.2.1 The way in which the Law Commission works 97 8.2.2 Repeal and consolidation 97 Chapter 10 Alternative methods 8.2.3 Codification 98 of dispute resolution 8.2.4 Success of the Law Commission 98 10.1 Negotiation 120 8.3 Royal Commissions 101 10.2 Mediation 120 8.3.1 Reviews by judges 101 10.2.1 Formalised settlement conference 120 Chapter 9 Civil cases 10.2.2 Mediation services 121 9.1 Negotiation 102 10.3 Conciliation 122 9.2 Starting a court case 103 10.4 Advantage of using ADR 122 9.2.1 Which court to use? 104 10.5 Arbitration 122 9.2.2 Issuing a claim 104 10.5.1 The agreement to arbitrate 122 9.2.3 Defending a claim 104 10.5.2 The arbitrator 123 9.2.4 Allocation of cases 104 10.5.3 The arbitration hearing 123 9.3 Small claims 107 10.5.4 The award 124 9.3.1 Small claims procedure 107 10.5.5 Advantages of arbitration 124 9.3.2 Advantages of small claims 107 10.5.6 Disadvantages of arbitration 124 9.3.3 Disadvantages of 10.6 Tribunals 125 small claims 107 10.6.1 Role of tribunals 125 9.4 County Court 108 10.6.2 Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement 9.4.1 Fast-track cases 108 Act 2007 125 9.4.2 Multi-track cases 109 10.6.3 Composition 126 9.5 High Court 109 10.6.4 Procedure 126 9.5.1 Queen’s Bench Division 109 10.6.5 Advantages of tribunals 126 9.5.2 Chancery Division 110 10.6.6 Disadvantages of tribunals 127 9.5.3 Family Division 110 10.6.7 Domestic tribunals 128 9.6 Family Court 110 879159_FM_English_i-xx.indd 5 06/07/16 1:21 PM vi Contents Chapter 11 Crime and police 13.1.2 Summary trials 158 investigations 13.1.3 Triable-either-way offences 160 13.1.4 Choosing trial by jury 161 11.1 Crime statistics 129 13.1.5 Sending cases to the Crown Court 163 11.1.1 The Crime Survey for England and 13.1.6 Committal for sentence 163 Wales (CSEW) 129 13.1.7 The role of the clerk 164 11.1.2 Investigating crime 129 13.2 Youth Courts 164 11.2 Police powers 130 13.3 Appeals from the Magistrates’ 11.2.1 Powers to stop and search 130 Court 164 11.2.2 Road checks 133 13.3.1 Appeals to the Crown Court 164 11.2.3 The power to search premises 133 13.3.2 Case-stated appeals 165 11.2.4 Powers of arrest 135 13.4 The Crown Court 166 11.2.5 Powers of detention 139 13.4.1 Preliminary matters 166 11.2.6 Police interviews of suspects 141 13.4.2 The trial 167 11.2.7 Searches, fingerprints and body 13.5 Appeals from the Crown Court 168 samples 145 13.5.1 Appeals by the defendant 168 11.3 Complaints against the police 146 13.5.2 Appeals by the prosecution 169 11.3.1 The Independent Police 13.5.3 Appeals to the Supreme Court 171 Complaints Commission 147 13.6 The Criminal Cases Review 11.3.2 Court actions 147 Commission 171 Chapter 12 Pre-trial procedure Chapter 14 Sentencing in criminal cases 14.1 The role of the courts 174 12.1 Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) 148 14.1.1 Restrictions on the courts’ powers 174 12.1.1 Organisation of the CPS 148 14.1.2 Minimum sentences 174 12.1.2 The functions of the CPS 149 14.2 Aims of sentencing 174 12.1.3 Preparing the prosecution case 150 14.2.1 Retribution 175 12.1.4 Criticism of the CPS 150 14.2.2 Denunciation 176 12.2 Bail 152 14.2.3 Incapacitation or protection 12.2.1 Police powers to grant bail 152 of the public 177 12.2.2 The Bail Act 1976 152 14.2.4 Deterrence 177 12.2.3 Restrictions on bail 154 14.2.5 Rehabilitation 179 12.2.4 Prosecution appeals 154 14.2.6 Reparation 179 12.2.5 Balancing conflicting interests 155 14.3 Sentencing practice in the courts 179 12.3 Pre-trial hearings 155 14.3.1 Factors surrounding the offence 180 12.3.1 Categories of offences 155 14.3.2 Reduction in sentence for a guilty 12.3.2 Pre-trial procedure for summary plea 180 offences 156 14.3.3 The offender’s background 181 12.3.3 Cases going for trial to the 14.3.4 Sentencing guidelines 181 Crown Court 156 14.4 Powers of the courts 182 14.4.1 Custodial sentences 182 Chapter 13 Criminal courts 14.4.2 Community orders 184 13.1 Magistrates’ Courts 157 14.4.3 Fines 186 13.1.1 Jurisdiction of the Magistrates’ 14.4.4 Discharges 186 Courts 157 879159_FM_English_i-xx.indd 6 06/07/16 1:21 PM Contents vii 14.4.5 Disqualification from driving 186 16.2.5 Recorders 210 14.4.6 Other powers available to the 16.2.6 District Judges 210 courts 187 16.2.7 Tribunal Judges 211 14.5 Young offenders 187 16.3 Selection 211 14.5.1 Custodial sentences 188 16.3.1 History 211 14.5.2 Community sentences 188 16.3.2 Justices of the new Supreme Court 211 14.5.3 Parental responsibility 190 16.3.3 The Judicial Appointments 14.6 Mentally ill offenders 190 Commission 212 14.7 Penal policies and their effects 191 16.4 Appointment 213 14.7.1 Prison population 191 16.5 Judicial roles 213 14.7.2 Reoffending 192 16.5.1 Justices of the Supreme Court 213 14.7.3 Women and sentencing 192 16.5.2 Lords Justices of Appeal 214 16.5.3 High Court Judges 215 Chapter 15 The legal profession 16.5.4 Inferior judges 215 16.6 Composition of the Bench 216 15.1 Solicitors 193 16.6.1 Women in the judiciary 216 15.1.1 Training 193 16.6.2 Ethnic minorities 217 15.1.2 Solicitors’ work 195 16.6.3 Educational and social background 217 15.1.3 The Law Society 197 16.7 Training 218 15.1.4 Complaints against solicitors 198 16.7.1 Should there be a ‘career’ judiciary? 218 15.2 Barristers 199 16.8 Judges must be impartial 219 15.2.1 Training 199 16.8.1 Bias and the Pinochet case 219 15.2.2 Barristers’ work 200 16.8.2 Bias and human rights 219 15.2.3 The General Council of the Bar 202 16.9 Retirement and dismissal 220 15.2.4 Complaints against barristers 202 16.9.1 Security of tenure of superior 15.3 Queen’s Counsel 204 judges 220 15.3.1 Appointment 204 16.9.2 Tenure of inferior judges 220 15.4 Overlap of roles of barristers and 16.9.3 Retirement 221 solicitors 204 16.10 Doctrine of the separation 15.4.1 Alternative Business Structures of powers 221 (ABS) 205 16.11 Independence of the judiciary 222 15.4.2 Fusion 205 16.11.1 Independence from the legislature 222 15.5 Women and ethnic minorities 16.11.2 Independence from the executive 222 in the legal profession 206 16.11.3 Freedom from pressure 223 15.6 Legal executives 207 16.11.4 Independence from political bias 223 16.12 The Lord Chancellor 224 Chapter 16 The judiciary 16.13 Law Officers 226 16.1 Types of judges 208 16.13.1 The Attorney-General 226 16.1.1 Superior judges 208 16.13.2 The Solicitor-General 227 16.1.2 Inferior judges 208 16.13.3 The Director of Public Prosecutions 227 16.2 Qualifications 209 16.2.1 The Justices of the Supreme Court 210 Chapter 17 Magistrates 16.2.2 Lords Justices of Appeal 210 17.1 Lay magistrates 228 16.2.3 High Court Judges 210 17.2 Qualifications 228 16.2.4 Circuit Judges 210 879159_FM_English_i-xx.indd 7 06/07/16 1:21 PM viii Contents 17.2.1 Lay magistrates 228 18.4 Selecting a jury 243 17.2.2 Restrictions on appointment 229 18.4.1 Vetting 244 17.2.3 District Judges 229 18.4.2 Selection at court 244 17.3 Appointment 229 18.4.3 Challenging 245 17.3.1 Local Advisory Committees 229 18.4.4 Criticisms of the selection of juries 245 17.3.2 Interview process 230 18.5 The jury’s role in criminal cases 248 17.3.3 Appointment 230 18.5.1 Split function 248 17.4 Composition of the Bench today 230 18.5.2 Majority verdicts 248 17.5 Role of magistrates 230 18.6 Advantages of jury trial 249 17.6 Training of lay magistrates 231 18.6.1 Public confidence 249 17.6.1 Mentors 231 18.6.2 Jury equity 249 17.6.2 Appraisal 231 18.6.3 Open system of justice 249 17.7 Retirement and removal 232 18.6.4 Secrecy of the jury room 249 17.7.1 Removal 232 18.6.5 Impartiality 250 17.8 The magistrates’ clerk 233 18.7 Disadvantages of jury trial 250 17.9 Advantages of lay magistrates 233 18.7.1 Perverse decisions 250 17.9.1 Cross-section of society 233 18.7.2 Secrecy 250 17.9.2 Local knowledge 233 18.7.3 Racial bias 251 17.9.3 Cost 234 18.7.4 Media influence 252 17.9.4 Legal adviser 234 18.7.5 Use of the Internet 252 17.9.5 Few appeals 234 18.7.6 Lack of understanding 253 17.10 Disadvantages of lay 18.7.7 Fraud trials 254 magistrates 234 18.7.8 Jury tampering 254 17.10.1 Middle-aged, middle class 234 18.7.9 High acquittal rates 255 17.10.2 Prosecution bias 234 18.7.10 Other disadvantages 255 17.10.3 Inconsistency in sentencing 235 18.8 Special problems of using 17.10.4 Reliance on the clerk 236 juries in civil cases 256 18.8.1 Amount of damages 256 Chapter 18 Juries 18.8.2 Unreasoned decision 256 18.8.3 Bias 256 18.1 History of the jury system 237 18.8.4 Cost 256 18.1.1 Independence of the jury 237 18.9 Alternatives to jury trial 256 18.2 Modern-day use of the jury 237 18.9.1 Trial by a single judge 257 18.2.1 Juries in criminal cases 237 18.9.2 A panel of judges 257 18.2.2 Juries in civil cases 238 18.9.3 A judge plus lay assessors 257 18.2.3 Coroners’ Courts 239 18.9.4 A mini-jury 257 18.3 Jury qualifications 239 18.3.1 Basic qualifications 239 Chapter 19 Legal aid and advice 18.3.2 Disqualification 240 18.3.3 Mentally disordered persons 240 19.1 Access to justice 258 18.3.4 Lack of capacity 240 19.2 History of legal aid and advice 18.3.5 The right to be excused from jury schemes 258 service 241 19.3 The Legal Aid, Sentencing 18.3.6 Discretionary excusals 241 and Punishment of Offenders 18.3.7 Lawyers and police on juries 241 Act 2012 259 879159_FM_English_i-xx.indd 8 06/07/16 1:21 PM Contents ix 19.3.1 Service providers 259 19.10.1 ‘Interests of justice’ test 267 19.3.2 Criteria for funding civil cases 259 19.10.2 Means test 267 19.3.3 Availability of legal aid 260 19.10.3 Lack of lawyers 268 19.4 Government funding in civil 19.10.4 Budget 268 cases 260 19.4.1 Means testing 260 Chapter 20 Human rights 19.5 Providers of legal services 261 20.1 The European Convention 19.5.1 Contracts 261 on Human Rights 269 19.6 Problems with funding of 20.2 The Human Rights Act 1998 269 civil cases 262 20.2.1 Effect of the Act on interpretation 19.6.1 Advice deserts 262 of the law 269 19.6.2 Eligibility levels 262 20.3 Declarations of incompatibility 270 19.7 Conditional fees 263 20.3.1 Government’s response to 19.7.1 How conditional fees work 263 declarations of incompatibility 270 19.7.2 Insurance premiums 264 20.4 Bringing a case 271 19.7.3 Are conditional fees working? 264 20.5 Convention rights 271 19.8 Advice agencies 264 20.5.1 The right to life and liberty 271 19.8.1 Citizens Advice 265 20.5.2 The right to a fair trial 272 19.8.2 Law centres 265 20.5.3 The right to privacy 273 19.8.3 Schemes run by lawyers 266 20.5.4 Other freedoms 273 19.9 Legal aid in criminal cases 266 20.6 European Court of Human 19.9.1 Advice and assistance for Rights 273 individuals in custody 266 20.6.1 Procedure 273 19.9.2 Representation 266 20.6.2 Case load 275 19.9.3 Interests of justice 266 Appendix 1 Hints on some of the activities 276 19.9.4 Magistrates’ Court means Appendix 2 Glossary of Latin terms 277 testing 267 Appendix 3 Tips on exam success 278 19.9.5 Crown Court means testing 267 Index 280 19.10 Problems with funding of criminal cases 267 879159_FM_English_i-xx.indd 9 06/07/16 1:21 PM