Kent and Riegel's HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY Volume I ELEVENTH EDITION Edited by James A. Kent, Ph.D. - Springer James A. Kent Professor of Chemical Engineering and Dean of Engineering [email protected] ISBN: 978-0-387-27842-1 e-ISBN: 978-0-387-27843-8 Library of Congress Control Number: 2005938809 0 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the pub- lisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Cover illustration: Abigail Kent Printed on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com Kent and Riegel's HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY Volume I ELEVENTH EDITION Edited by James A. Kent, Ph.D. - Springer James A. Kent Professor of Chemical Engineering and Dean of Engineering [email protected] ISBN: 978-0-387-27842-1 e-ISBN: 978-0-387-27843-8 Library of Congress Control Number: 2005938809 0 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the pub- lisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Cover illustration: Abigail Kent Printed on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com Contents Volume I Chapter 1 Recent History of the Chemical Industry* 1973 to the Millenium: The New Facts of World Chemicals Since 1973 1 Fred Afalion Chapter 2 Economic Aspects of the Chemical Industry 63 Joseph b ! Koleske Chapter 3 Safety Considerations in the Chemical Process Industries 83 Stanley M. Englund Chapter 4 Managing an Emergency Preparedness Program 147 Thaddeus H. Spencer and James H! Bowman Chapter 5 Applied Statistical Methods and the Chemical Industry 178 Stephen Vardeman and Robert Kasprzyk Chapter 6 Green Engineering-Integration of Green Chemistry, Pollution Prevention, and Risk-Based Considerations 210 David Shonnard, Angela Lindnel; Nhan Nguyen, Palghat A. Ramachandran, Daniel Fichana, Robert Hesketh, C. Stewart Slatel; and Richard Engler Chapter 7 Industrial Catalysis: A Practical Guide 271 Robert Farrauto Chapter 8 Environmental Chemical Determinations 305 William L. Budde Chapter 9 Nanotechnology: Fundamental Principles and Applications 328 Koodali T Ranjit and Kenneth J. Klabunde Chapter 10 Synthetic Organic Chemicals 345 Guo-Shuh J Lee, James H. McCain, and Madan M. Bhasin Chapter 11 Chemistry in the Pharmaceutical Industry 404 Graham S. Poindextel; Yadagiri Pendri, Lawrence B. Snydev, Joseph P Yevich, and Milind Deshpande Chapter 12 Manufactured Textile Fibers 43 1 Bhupender S. Gupta Chapter 13 Dye Application, Manufacture of Dye Intermediates and Dyes 499 Harold Freeman and Gary Mock Chapter 14 The Chemistry of Structural Adhesives: Epoxy, Urethane, and Acrylic Adhesives 59 1 Dennis J. Zalucha, Ph.D. and Kirk. J. Abbey, Ph.D. Chapter 15 Synthetic Resins and Plastics 623 Rudolph D. Deanin and Joey L. Mead Chapter 16 Rubber 689 D. l? Graves Chapter 17 The Agrochemical Industry 719 A. M. Malti and A. 7: Lilani Chapter 18 Petroleum and Its Products 80 1 Stephany Romanow-Garcia and H. L. Hoffman Index I- 1 xi xii CONTENTS Volume I I Chapter 19 Coal Technology for Power, Liquid Fuels, and Chemicals 843 R. D. Srivastava, H. G. Mcllvried III, , J C. Winslow, C. I? Maronde, and R. I? Noceti Chapter 20 Natural Gas 907 Robert N. Maddox, Mahmood Moshfeghian, James D. Idol, and Arland H. Johannes Chapter 21 The Nuclear Industry 935 Tom Congedo, Edward Lahoda, Regis Matzie, and Keith Task Chapter 22 Synthetic Nitrogen Products 996 Gary R. Maxwell Chapter 23 Phosphorus and Phosphates 1086 G. A. Gruber Chapter 24 Fertilizers and Food Production 1111 Amit H. Roy Chapter 25 Sulfur and Sulfuric Acid 1157 Gerard E. d 'Aquin and Robert C. Fell Chapter 26 Salt, Chlor-Alkali, and Related Heavy Chemicals 1183 Tilak V Bommaraju Chapter 27 Industrial Gases 1215 Steven J Cooke Chapter 28 Wood and Wood Products 1234 Raymond A. Young Chapter 29 Pigments, Paints, Polymer Coatings, Lacquers, and Printing Inks 1294 Rose Ryntz Chapter 30 Industrial Biotechnology: Discovery to Delivery 1311 Gopal K. Chotani, Timothy C. Dodge, Alfred L. Gaertner; and Michael !L Arbige Chapter 31 Industrial Enzymes and Biocatalysis 1375 Joseph C. McAulge, Wolfgang Aehle, Gregory M. Whited, and Donald E. Ward Chapter 32 Industrial Production of Therapeutic Proteins: Cell Lines, Cell Culture, and Purification 1421 Marie M. Zhu, Michael Mollet, and Rene S. Hubert Chapter 33 Biomass Conversion 1499 Stephen R. Deckeq John Sheehan, David C. Dayton, Joseph J Bozell, William S. Adney, Bonnie Hames, Steven R. Thomas, Richard L. Bain, Stefan Czernik, Min Zhang, and Michael E. Himmel Chapter 34 Animal and Vegetable Fats, Oils, and Waxes 1549 Edmund ni Lusas Chapter 35 Sugar and Other Sweeteners 1657 Mary An Godshall Chapter 36 Soap, Fatty Acids, and Synthetic Detergents 1694 Janine Chupa, Amit Sachdev, Steve Misneqand George A. Smith Chapter 37 Chemical Explosives and Rocket Propellants 1742 Walter Sudweeks, Felix F Chen, and Michael McPherson Index I- 1 Contents Volume I Chapter 1 Recent History of the Chemical Industry* 1973 to the Millenium: The New Facts of World Chemicals Since 1973 1 Fred Afalion Chapter 2 Economic Aspects of the Chemical Industry 63 Joseph b ! Koleske Chapter 3 Safety Considerations in the Chemical Process Industries 83 Stanley M. Englund Chapter 4 Managing an Emergency Preparedness Program 147 Thaddeus H. Spencer and James H! Bowman Chapter 5 Applied Statistical Methods and the Chemical Industry 178 Stephen Vardeman and Robert Kasprzyk Chapter 6 Green Engineering-Integration of Green Chemistry, Pollution Prevention, and Risk-Based Considerations 210 David Shonnard, Angela Lindnel; Nhan Nguyen, Palghat A. Ramachandran, Daniel Fichana, Robert Hesketh, C. Stewart Slatel; and Richard Engler Chapter 7 Industrial Catalysis: A Practical Guide 271 Robert Farrauto Chapter 8 Environmental Chemical Determinations 305 William L. Budde Chapter 9 Nanotechnology: Fundamental Principles and Applications 328 Koodali T Ranjit and Kenneth J. Klabunde Chapter 10 Synthetic Organic Chemicals 345 Guo-Shuh J Lee, James H. McCain, and Madan M. Bhasin Chapter 11 Chemistry in the Pharmaceutical Industry 404 Graham S. Poindextel; Yadagiri Pendri, Lawrence B. Snydev, Joseph P Yevich, and Milind Deshpande Chapter 12 Manufactured Textile Fibers 43 1 Bhupender S. Gupta Chapter 13 Dye Application, Manufacture of Dye Intermediates and Dyes 499 Harold Freeman and Gary Mock Chapter 14 The Chemistry of Structural Adhesives: Epoxy, Urethane, and Acrylic Adhesives 59 1 Dennis J. Zalucha, Ph.D. and Kirk. J. Abbey, Ph.D. Chapter 15 Synthetic Resins and Plastics 623 Rudolph D. Deanin and Joey L. Mead Chapter 16 Rubber 689 D. l? Graves Chapter 17 The Agrochemical Industry 719 A. M. Malti and A. 7: Lilani Chapter 18 Petroleum and Its Products 80 1 Stephany Romanow-Garcia and H. L. Hoffman Index I- 1 xi xii CONTENTS Volume I I Chapter 19 Coal Technology for Power, Liquid Fuels, and Chemicals 843 R. D. Srivastava, H. G. Mcllvried III, , J C. Winslow, C. I? Maronde, and R. I? Noceti Chapter 20 Natural Gas 907 Robert N. Maddox, Mahmood Moshfeghian, James D. Idol, and Arland H. Johannes Chapter 21 The Nuclear Industry 935 Tom Congedo, Edward Lahoda, Regis Matzie, and Keith Task Chapter 22 Synthetic Nitrogen Products 996 Gary R. Maxwell Chapter 23 Phosphorus and Phosphates 1086 G. A. Gruber Chapter 24 Fertilizers and Food Production 1111 Amit H. Roy Chapter 25 Sulfur and Sulfuric Acid 1157 Gerard E. d 'Aquin and Robert C. Fell Chapter 26 Salt, Chlor-Alkali, and Related Heavy Chemicals 1183 Tilak V Bommaraju Chapter 27 Industrial Gases 1215 Steven J Cooke Chapter 28 Wood and Wood Products 1234 Raymond A. Young Chapter 29 Pigments, Paints, Polymer Coatings, Lacquers, and Printing Inks 1294 Rose Ryntz Chapter 30 Industrial Biotechnology: Discovery to Delivery 1311 Gopal K. Chotani, Timothy C. Dodge, Alfred L. Gaertner; and Michael !L Arbige Chapter 31 Industrial Enzymes and Biocatalysis 1375 Joseph C. McAulge, Wolfgang Aehle, Gregory M. Whited, and Donald E. Ward Chapter 32 Industrial Production of Therapeutic Proteins: Cell Lines, Cell Culture, and Purification 1421 Marie M. Zhu, Michael Mollet, and Rene S. Hubert Chapter 33 Biomass Conversion 1499 Stephen R. Deckeq John Sheehan, David C. Dayton, Joseph J Bozell, William S. Adney, Bonnie Hames, Steven R. Thomas, Richard L. Bain, Stefan Czernik, Min Zhang, and Michael E. Himmel Chapter 34 Animal and Vegetable Fats, Oils, and Waxes 1549 Edmund ni Lusas Chapter 35 Sugar and Other Sweeteners 1657 Mary An Godshall Chapter 36 Soap, Fatty Acids, and Synthetic Detergents 1694 Janine Chupa, Amit Sachdev, Steve Misneqand George A. Smith Chapter 37 Chemical Explosives and Rocket Propellants 1742 Walter Sudweeks, Felix F Chen, and Michael McPherson Index I- 1 Recent History of the Chemical Industry* 1973 to the Millenium: The New Facts of World Chemicals Since 1973 Fred Aftalion I. OVERCAPACITIES AND THE SEARCH plied in Europe as well as in the United States FOR REMEDIES and Japan. The first oil shock that occurred at the end of Two other factors contributed to this rapid 1973 with the Yom Kippur war served to pin- growth. The use of oil as a substitute for coal point the crisis which world chemicals were provided the chemical industry with abun- already undergoing. dant, cheap raw material that was easy to The chemical industry's soaring develop- transport. With interest rates lagging behind ment after the war was due to the extraordi- the rate of monetary erosion over a number of nary burst of innovations occurring between years, industry leaders were tempted to carry 1935 and 1955 and coinciding with an explo- out investments that they would not have sion of world demand in a variety of sectors made had currencies remained stable and served by chemicals. Production units multi- interest rates higher. The fear of these leaders that competition would get the better of them if they slowed down their investments, the *This chapter consists of two chapters taken from a race for market shares advocated by a number book by Dr. Fred Aftalion. A History ofthe lnternational of consultant firms like the Boston Consulting Chemical Industry, Second Edition, translation by Otto Group, the belief-uite widespread among Theodor Benfy, Copyright 0 the Chemical Heritage Foundation, Philadelphia, PA (2001). This material is world chemicals leaders-that they had to reprinted by permission of the copyright owner and keep building new units to keep up with fore- Fred Aftalion. All rights reserved. The book traces the cast needs, all had a share in building up pro- development of the Industry from its earliest days, describing the activities of the pioneers of chemical duction overcapacities which were already science and the entrepreneurs who built on their work becoming apparent before 1973 in certain sec- to create the chemical industry as we know it. Space tors of heavy chemicals (petrochemicals, syn- limitations permit the inclusion of only Chapter 6. "World Chemicals Since 1973," and Chapter 7, "The thetic fibers, thermoplastics, and fertilizers). Period of the 1990s." Noteworthy changes that have The establishment of an OPEC cartel that occurred in the industry since 2000 are mentioned in led to a rise in the price of a barrel of crude oil the following chapter, "Economic Aspects of the Chemical Industry." from $3 to $12, then the 1979 Iranian 1 2 KENTAND RIEGEL‘S HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY Revolution which made it soar to $40, and the extent that all the companies involved in finally the publication of the gloomy forecasts that area in industrialized countries were long of the Club of Rome experts which mistak- established and that no discovery likely to enly saw oil shortages ahead when, in fact, affect its development had been made over the these had been artificially engineered by the last two decades. While new areas of research Cartel members-all these facts upset chemi- like composite materials and biotechnologies cal leaders in industrialized countries. And yet had emerged, no immediate fallout was some of them still continued to invest in new expected for a number of years. Thus failing plants during the stock-building lulls that any rapid internal growth brought about by occurred in 1974 and 1979 through con- major scientific breakthrough, the strategy sumers’ speculating on new price rises. of leaders anxious to refocus or diversify This only made the necessary adjustments their portfolio of activities very often con- much harder when they had to be carried out at sisted of a kind of Monopoly game, as a the beginning of the 1980s. Companies were to range of production was shifted from one suffer greatly from an error of judgment, build- enterprise to another without anything new ing new plants at great expense at the same time being created. that economic growth rates tumbled from over 10 percent to a mere 2 to 3 percent. Caught THE RESTRUCTURING OF between the increasing cost of their hydrocar- SECTORS IN DISTRESS bon raw materials and the ever-lower prices they had to use to sell their products in markets Priority action was required in petrochemi- where offer exceeded demand, leading chemi- cals, in the large thermoplastics, in fertilizers, cal companies in industrialized countries were and in synthetic fibers where the most serious forced to go through agonizing reappraisals. investment mistakes had been made. The This led them to act in a number of differ- hardest cases were those of petrochemicals ent directions. First and foremost, they had to and thermoplastics. For one thing, a steam lower their operating costs by cutting down on cracker cannot technically operate under 60 excess personnel and taking the measures percent of its capacity. For another, the prod- needed to increase the productivity of each ucts that emerge are linked to one another in company. At the same time, they had to almost invariable proportions. Finally, a poly- reduce, in a concerted way if possible, the merization unit cannot have its pace slowed overcapacities affecting the hardest-hit sec- down without this affecting the upstream tors. Finally, it seemed advisable to redirect monomer unit to the same extent. production into areas that were less sensitive In addition to such rigidities, there was the to economic change. This meant increasing need to reduce not only the quantities pro- the share of specialties in relation to com- duced but also the number of production modities in overall turnover. units. The problem then arose of sharing the A new generation of leaders was called sacrifices among the different producers upon to carry out the socially painful and within an economic area. politically delicate job of rationalizing and The problem was most easily solved in restructuring the chemical industry through Japan because of the discipline which MITI layoffs and plant closures. These same leaders managed to establish within the country’s were also given the more exalting, but just as petrochemical industry. Making the most of a difficult, task of defining the redeployment new law that allowed competing producers to strategy that needed to be followed and of act in concert, a cartel was set up with the determining on a case-by-case basis the sec- object of cutting down ethylene production. tors that should be abandoned and those that, Four groups of petrochemical producers were on the contrary, had to be invested in force. formed within which the necessary arbitra- By 1973, it was obvious that the chemical tions took place. This led Sumitomo to close industry had reached a degree of maturity to its Niihama units, Mitsubishi a number of its