In partnership with UNIVERSITAS CENDERAWASIH Final Report: A biodiversity risk assessment and recommendations for risk management of Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in New Guinea Neville J. Kemp and John Burke Burnett December 2003 Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance Final Report: A Biodiversity Risk Assessment and Recommendations for Risk Management of Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in New Guinea December 2003 Contents Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………….......1 Citation Information……………………………………………………………………………….......2 1. Executive Summary…………………………………………………………………………........3 1.1. Macaca fascicularis as an alien and potentially invasive species in New Guinea........3 1.2. The status of macaques in Papua……………………………………………………........5 1.3. Impacts of M. fascicularis on ecology, health, and rural livelihoods in Papua…….......6 1.4. Summary conclusions…………………………………………………………………….....7 2. Introduction............................................................................................................................8 3. Project Justification…………………………………………………..........................................10 4. Project Objectives……………………………………………………………………………........11 5. Project Implementation……………………………………………………………………….......11 6. Terminology……………………………………………………………………………………......11 7. Literature Review: Characteristics and Behaviours of Macaca fascicularis……………… 12 7.1. Distribution and habitat preference……………………………………………………….. 12 7.2. Feeding preference…………………………………………………………………………. 14 7.3. Social behaviour………………………………………………………………………… …. 15 7.4. Predation and competition from other species………………………………………… 15 7.5. Diseases…………………………………………………………………………………… 16 7.6. Positive aspects of M. fascicularis………………………………………………………….17 8. Literature Review: Assessing Macaca fascicularis as an Exotic Invasive Species in Mauritius, Palau, and Hong Kong…………………………………………………………………………… 18 8.1. Mauritius……………………………………………………………………………………… 18 8.2. Angaur, Palau……………………………………………………………………………… 21 8.3. Hong Kong…………………………………………………………………………………… 22 8.4. Postive impacts and uses of exotic Macaca fascicularis………………………………. 23 9. Distribution and Characteristics of Macaca fascicularis in Papua…………………………… 24 9.1. Previous reports on Papua macaques……………………………………………………..24 9.2. Historical origins of Macaca fascicularis in Papua……………………………………….. 24 9.2.1. Pre-colonial and early Dutch era………………………………………………….. 25 9.2.2. Japanese military…………………………………………………………………… 26 9.2.3. U.S. Armed Forces………………………………………………………………….. 27 9.2.4. Post-war Dutch colonists…………………………………………………………….27 9.2.5. Official transmigrants…………………………………………………………………27 9.2.6. Indonesian army/police…………………………………………………………….. 28 9.2.7. Voluntary (economic) migrants…………………………………………………….. 28 9.2.8. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………. 29 9.3. Distribution and population assessment survey methods………………………………..29 9.4. Distribution and population assessment survey results………………………………….33 10. Monitoring extant Macaca fascicularis troops in Papua……………………………………… 35 ii Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance Final Report: A Biodiversity Risk Assessment and Recommendations for Risk Management of Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in New Guinea December 2003 10.1. Aims of monitoring……………………………………………………………………… 35 10.2. Methodology…………………………………………………………………………… 35 10.3. Results……………………………………………………………………………….… 36 10.3.1. Extant M. fascicularis populations in Papua…………………………………… 36 10.3.2. Physical characteristics of M. fascicularis in Papua………………………….. 38 10.3.3. Habitat preference in Papua………………………………………………………. 39 10.3.4. Feeding preferences…………………………………………………………………40 10.3.4.1. Plant food resources…………………………………………………… 40 10.3.4.2. Other sources of food…………………………………………………… 43 10.3.5. Home range and population density……………………………………………… 43 10.3.6. Behaviour and troop structure…………………………………………………… 46 10.3.6.1. Behaviour………………………………………………………………… 46 10.3.6.2. Demography and sex ratios…………………………………………………47 10.3.6.3. Potential population increment…………………………………………… 47 10.3.7. Predators and competitors………………………………………………………… 49 11. Ecological Impact Study of Macaca fascicularis in Papua…………………………………… 51 11.1. Aims of ecological impact study…………………………………………………………51 11.2. Impact of M. fascicularis on the native environment and species………………….. 51 11.2.1. Experiment design and justification……………………………………………….. 51 11.2.2. Bird fauna surveys……………………………………………………………………53 11.2.2.1. Methodology…………………………………………………………………..53 11.2.2.2. Results and conclusions……………………………………………………. 54 11.2.3. Reptile fauna surveys……………………………………………………………… 57 11.2.3.1. Methodology………………………………………………………………… 57 11.2.3.2. Results and conclusions…………………………………………………… 57 11.2.4. Mammal and large reptile fauna surveys………………………………………… 58 11.2.4.1. Methodology………………………………………………………………… 58 11.2.4.2. Results and conclusions…………………………………………………… 59 11.2.5. Alteration of habitat by Macaca fascicularis……………………………………… 60 11.3. Economic impacts of M. fascicularis in Papua……………………………………… 60 11.3.1. Cassava (Manihot esculenta) …………………………………………………… 60 11.3.2. Coconut (Cocos nucifera) ………………………………………………………… 61 11.3.3. String beans (Vigna unguiculata) ………………………………………………… 61 11.3.4. Mangos (Mangifera indica) …………………………………………………… 61 11.3.5. Other crops………………………………………………………………………… 61 11.3.6. Economic losses……………………………………………………………… 62 11.4. Public and animal health concerns and potential impacts………………………… 62 12. Detection, Prevention, and Quarantine Issues Related to Papua Macaques…………… 66 12.1. Prevention……………………………………………………………………………… 66 12.2. Potential for future introductions…………………………………………………… 66 12.3. Institutional capacity enhancements required………………………………………… 67 12.4. Policy-level changes needed…………………………………………………………… 68 13. Baiting and Trapping Trials…………………………………………………………………… 70 13.1. Baiting…………………………………………………………………………………… 70 iii Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance Final Report: A Biodiversity Risk Assessment and Recommendations for Risk Management of Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in New Guinea December 2003 13.2. Trapping……………………………………………………………………………………70 13.3. Summary and conclusions……………………………………………………………… 72 14. Stakeholder Outreach……………………………………………………………………..……. 73 14.1. Government and NGOs………………………………………………………………… 73 14.2. Local communities……………………………………………………………………… 73 15. Risk Management Options for Papua Macaques…………………………………………… 74 15.1. Containment Options…………………………………………………………………. 74 15.1.1. Evaluation of Containment options…………………………………………….. 75 15.1.1.1. Containment within existing forest island……………………………… 75 15.1.1.2. Physical containment / monkey forest park……………………………… 75 15.2. Control Options………………………………………………………………………… 77 15.2.1. Evaluation of Control options……………………………………………………. 78 15.2.1.1. Porcine Zona Pellucida immunocontraception vaccine………………… 78 15.2.1.2. Surgical sterilization of male macaques………………………………… 79 15.2.1.3. Shooting / trapping / poisoning………………………………………… 80 15.3. Eradication Options……………………………………………………………………… 82 15.3.1. Evaluation of Eradication options………………………………………………… 82 15.3.1.1. Hunting……………………………………………………………………… 82 15.3.1.2. Bounty-based hunting……………………………………………………… 83 15.3.1.3. Trapping……………………………………………………………………… 83 15.3.1.4. Trapping with euthanization……………………………………………. 83 15.3.1.5. Trapping with subsequent relocation……………………………………… 83 15.3.1.6. Poisoning…………………………………………………………………… 84 16. Key Conclusions and Recommendations……………………………………………………… 87 16.1. Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………. 87 16.2. Recommendations……………………………………………………………………… 88 Appendices Appendix 1: Terminology Used In This Report………………………………………………… 90 Appendix 2: Community Interview Data………………………………………………………… 91 Appendix 3: Observations of Macaca fascicularis at Vim/Kotaraja………………………… 99 Appendix 4: Bird Species Recorded in Four Study Locations Using MacKinnon List Method………………………………………………………………………….. 102 Appendix 5: Quantitative Bird Samples (Spot Observations) to Measure Diversity………… 105 Appendix 6: Quantitative Lizard Samples (Litter Plots) to Measure Diversity……………… 107 Appendix 7: List of Participants in IPCA/UNCEN-sponsored Seminar on Risks of Papuan Macaques and Other Invasive Species………………………………… 108 References………………………………………………………………………………………. 110 iv Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance Final Report: A Biodiversity Risk Assessment and Recommendations for Risk Management of Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in New Guinea December 2003 List of Figures Figure 1: Native range of Macaca fascicularis…………………………………………………....… 13 Figure 2: Poster used in community interviews by IPCA/UNCEN in 2002……………………..… 31 Figure 3: DAPAS and community interview locations for this survey……………………………. 32 Figure 4: Map of Jayapura, Sentani and Arso areas showing the distribution of Macaca fascicularis in Papua, Indonesia………………………………………………………………………..… 38 Figure 5: Home ranges of five Macaca fascicularis troops at Vim, Kotaraja……………………… 45 Figure 6: Timeline depicting theoretical population growth lag and rapid expansion phases..… 49 Figure 7: Experimental design for measuring impacts of Macaca fascicularis…………….…..… 52 Figure 8: Map of locations for impact surveys……………………………………………………..… 53 Figure 9: Species discovery curves generated from MacKinnon list method………….……….… 55 Figure 10: Steel Spring-loaded double-door Tomahawk type trap………………………………… 71 Figure 11: Successful capture of adult male from Mangga troop………………………………..… 72 List of Tables Table 1: Data for extant Macaca fascicularis populations in Papua………………………………. 36 Table 2: Measurements taken from Macaca fascicularis individuals trapped at Kotaraja……… 39 Table 3: Plant species observed to be eaten by Macaca fascicularis in Papua……………….… 42 Table 4: Troop size, home range size and density of macaque troops in Papua……………...... 44 Table 5: Population, sex and age structure of Macaca fascicularis troops in Papua………….… 47 Table 6: Theoretical maximum potential population increment of macaques in Papua………… 48 Table 7: Summary of results of bird surveys in primary and secondary forests with and without Macaca fascicularis………………………………………………………………………..… 54 Table 8: Results from ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) tests for bird fauna…………………….… 56 Table 9: Diversity and abundance of reptile species found in 12 litter plots in four sites…….… 57 Table 10: Two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for reptile samples in four sites………..…… 58 Table 11: Mammal and large reptile records from night surveys…………………………………… 59 Table 12: Advantages and disadvantages of available Containment options…………………..… 76 Table 13: Advantages and disadvantages of available Control options…………………………… 81 Table 14: Advantages and disadvantages of available Eradication options………………….…… 85 Plates Plates 1–8:………………………………… ……………………………………………………….…….. 64 Plate 9–14:…………………………………………. ………………………………………….……….… 65 v Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance Final Report: A Biodiversity Risk Assessment and Recommendations for Risk Management of Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in New Guinea December 2003 Acknowledgements IPCA and UNCEN wish to thank the people and institutions that have helped in the compilation of data, preparation, reviewing and writing that has resulted in this document. Extraordinary thanks go to Pieter M.I. Torobi who assisted throughout the project, and whose expertise in working with the community and obtaining information regarding Macaca fascicularis and other exotics was invaluable. IPCA gives deep thanks to Drs. Frans Wospakrik, M.Sc., Rector of Cenderawasih University (UNCEN); Drs. Samuel J. Renyaan, M.Sc., Dean of Faculty (and Biology Department Lecturer); Dra. Elizabeth Holle, M.Sc, First Assistant Dean of Faculty; Dra. Verena Agustini, M.Sc, Second Assistant Dean of Faculty, from the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences at UNCEN. Special thanks also go to the dedicated team of biology students from Cenderawasih University - Hendrik M. Buiney, Alky Rose Yoku, Herlina Manufandu, Leopold Burame, Hengky Wambrauw, Kores Seh, Efredy Awundi, Terianus Buiney, Arthur Steven Tipawael, Yohanes Don Bosco Maro, Rintho H. Mambrasar, Irawaty Panjaitan and Maikel Simbiak that volunteered for the hundreds of hours needed for compiling data on macaque populations, food sources, and impacts on native bird, mammal and lizard populations. Thanks also go to: Bapedalda – Papua Province, Bapedalda Kotamadya Jayapura, Nature Conservation Authority - Dept of Forestry, Police of Papua for supporting the project and approving necessary documents; Wayne Takeuchi and University of Papua Herbarium for identifying plants specimens; Mapping and Inventory Section - Dept. of Forestry for their cooperation in providing excellent digital maps; participants of the Seminar and Workshop on “Risks of the Spread of Macaques in Papua and from Other Exotic Species” sponsored by IPCA and UNCEN and held on 18 March 2003 at Cenderawasih University for providing valuable information and a mid-term evaluation for our project; Yayasan Pendidikan Lingkungan Hidup Cyclops (YPLHC) and Roy Rindo-Rindo for their work on guidelines for awareness campaigns; The Livestock Clinic and Laboratory for assistance in taking samples for disease testing; Burhan Tjaturadi for help with reptile identification and M. Farid for survey methodology input; Jana Goldsmith and Michael French Smith for their suggestions on our approach; the IUCN/SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group; Ron Petocz; Art Mitchell; Paula Warren; Alan Saunders; Tim Low; and to Rob Lee, Andy Mack, Dan Polhemus, Steve Richards, and Ross Sinclair for their very helpful guidance and comments during the project research and writing of this document. Finally, we wish to express our deep thanks and gratitude to Conservation International, World Wildlife Fund, The Nature Conservancy, and Wildlife Conservation Society for their support. Particular thanks go to Scott Atkinson, Bruce Beehler, Michelle Brown, Ian Dutton, Yance de Fretes, Rob Lee, Andy Mack, Benja Mambai, John Maturbongs, Russ Mittermeier, John Morrison, Duncan Neville, Roy Rindo-Rindo, Jatna Supriatna, and Suer Suryadi. We also want to give special thanks to Dr. Jared Diamond for his interest and support of this research, and whose attention to this problem was one of the early catalysts behind this effort. This report is dedicated to Mr. Yakob “Yopie” Muskita, whose passing in 2003 was a keenly felt loss to the conservation community in Papua and Indonesia. 1 Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance Final Report: A Biodiversity Risk Assessment and Recommendations for Risk Management of Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in New Guinea December 2003 Copyright: © 2003 Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance Citation: Kemp, N.J. and Burnett, J.B. (2003). Final Report: A Biodiversity Risk Assessment and Recommendations for Risk Management of Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in New Guinea. December 2003. Washington, DC: Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance. All Photos: Neville Kemp, © Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance Any errors or omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors. 2 Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance Final Report: A Biodiversity Risk Assessment and Recommendations for Risk Management of Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in New Guinea December 2003 1. Executive Summary The Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance (IPCA) in collaboration with Cenderawasih University (UNCEN) carried out an extensive literature review and field study of Macaca fascicularis (Long- tailed Macaque or Crab-eating Macaque) populations which were introduced into Papua (Irian Jaya), Indonesia in the recent past. On the basis of known behaviours of this species, many in the biodiversity conservation community in the province understood these animals to be an invasive pest and thus a potentially serious threat to the native flora and fauna of the island of New Guinea1. The research was led by Mr. Neville Kemp, M.Sc. Field studies began in the Jayapura area in late September 2002, continuing through the end of June 2003. This report includes the results of our extensive literature review on the known characteristics and behaviours of M. fascicularis in its native range (including ecological and feeding preferences, social behaviour, predation on and competition with other species, and diseases) and on the status of M. fascicularis as an exotic invasive species in Mauritius, Palau, and Hong Kong. The main section of this paper describes the distribution and characteristics of macaques in Papua based on our distribution and population assessment surveys and community interviews. We carried out a monitoring study to determine various factors (ex. population dynamics, feeding preferences, etc.) pertaining to Papua macaques’ ecological impact. We also conducted a plot- based comparative study in which paired sites of both primary and secondary forests, with and without M. fascicularis, were censused to assess how macaques impact the native flora and fauna. We examine economic data to provide a rough estimation of macaques’ negative impact on rural livelihoods, and discuss public health concerns posed by macaques. In the last section of the paper, we evaluate options to manage, reduce, or eliminate the risks associated with macaques in New Guinea. This includes a detailed appraisal of the advantages and disadvantages of three strategies: containment, control, and eradication, and what will be required to carry them out. The main conclusions of this study follow. 1.1. Macaca fascicularis as an alien and potentially invasive species in New Guinea Since the island of New Guinea is far outside the native range of Macaca fascicularis, Papua macaques are by definition an exotic or alien species. Because their populations and/or ranges in Papua are not expanding rapidly at present (due to limiting factors including current lack of access to unfragmented forest habitat), they are, strictly speaking, not yet an invasive species in Papua. We conclude, however, that given suitable conditions, macaques have a very high potential to become invasive (i.e., colonize new forest areas and rapidly expand their populations) in New Guinea. 1 The term New Guinea refers to the entire island as a biogeographic entity. Our use of the name Papua refers solely to the western half of the island (i.e. “Irian Jaya”), a province of Indonesia. This understandably causes some confusion with the eastern half of the island, the independent state of Papua New Guinea (PNG), particularly since the southern half of what is now PNG was referred to as “Papua” in colonial times. However, Gelpke (1993; discussed in Pickell, 2002) concludes that the most plausible etymology of the term Papua is that it arose from a Biak islander phrase to refer to what are now the Raja Ampat islands in the far western reaches of the island. The term “Papua” would thus seem to originally apply to the western half of the island, i.e. Papua / Irian Jaya. 3 Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance Final Report: A Biodiversity Risk Assessment and Recommendations for Risk Management of Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in New Guinea December 2003 Macaca fascicularis is an alien or exotic species in at least four locations: Mauritius (Sussman and Tattersall, 1986), Angaur, Palau (Poirier and Smith, 1974), Hong Kong (Walker, 2002) and Papua. The species has become invasive in at least two of these locations, Mauritius and Angaur (Cheke, 1987; Anon, 2002), both of which are tropical islands. Angaur is located relatively near to New Guinea and shares many ecological and climatic characteristics with the island; this similarity of habitat and climate is an important criterion in predicting the potential invasiveness of a species (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001). There are several other criteria that can help predict the potential invasiveness of M. fascicularis in Papua, and which are of consideration in assessing the risk management of the species. Low (1999) suggests there are four main factors that cause an alien species to become invasive. These are: (1) the species is an ecological generalist that can adapt to new conditions and/or habitat; (2) there are previously vacant ecological niches in the new habitat; (3) the alien species is not threatened by predators or diseases that control populations in their native range; and (4) the species is favorably adapted to or shows a preference for disturbed habitat. In the case of Macaca fascicularis and New Guinea, all these factors are operative: • Macaca fascicularis can adapt to a wide variety of habitat types including coastal habitat, swamp forest, lowland rainforest, to montane forest and ranging from sea-level to at least 1,800 meters above sea level (Wheatley, 2001). All of the habitats reported to support M. fascicularis from their native range are present throughout lowland New Guinea. There are also many common floristic elements common to both western Indonesia/mainland Southeast Asia and New Guinea (as the easternmost part of Malesia). In terms of availability of suitable habitat, therefore, M. fascicularis can thrive throughout almost all of lowland northern New Guinea. Given its agility and ability to access higher elevations, it is possible that the species could disperse across the central mountains into southern New Guinea as well. • Although its diet consists mainly of fruit, M. fascicularis is an opportunistic omnivore (Poirier and Smith, 1974), exploiting a very wide variety of foods. The species has been shown to take vertebrates on an opportunistic basis (Nowak, 1995), and is suspected of consuming several rare species of lizard on Mauritius (Richard Gibson, pers comm.). It is also a known nest predator, taking bird eggs and possibly adult birds as well (Carter and Bright, 2002, Richard Gibson, 2002; Anon, 2001a). Unlike New Guinea’s native mammal fauna, M. fascicularis has manipulable hands (i.e. opposable thumbs), which allows it to open fruit casings and nuts and thus exploit a great range of food items. As such, macaques are a strong competitor with native species for food resources. This generalist behaviour is extremely advantageous to a species when colonizing new areas (either within their home range, or in new habitat), as they are not limited by specific food requirements. Generalism is a form of ecological superiority and also allows the species to occupy previously vacant niches, thus increasing M. fascicularis’ invasive potential. • In its native range, M. fascicularis has a number of predators and competitors that control their population (Hoogerwerf, 1970; Wheatley, 1996; MacKinnon et al., 1996). These predators and competitors are absent in New Guinea, except for hunting dogs and (perhaps) large snakes of the family Boidae (boas). The absence of such predators/competitors presents an ecological opportunity that may allow a higher potential reproduction rate and increase the invasive potential of M. fascicularis. 4 Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance Final Report: A Biodiversity Risk Assessment and Recommendations for Risk Management of Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in New Guinea December 2003 • Macaca fascicularis shows a particular preference for secondary habitats disturbed by human activity (Wheatley, 1999; Anon, 200a; Bonadio, no date), though it can thrive in primary forest as well. The ever-increasing degree of anthropogenic disturbance within and around remaining tracts of primary forest is increasing the range of potential habitat for M. fascicularis in both its native range and in Papua. On the basis of these criteria, M. fascicularis is thus potentially an invasive species in New Guinea. 1.2. The status of macaques in Papua Populations of introduced Macaca fascicularis in Papua are currently limited to a relatively small area in the immediate Jayapura/Kotaraja area in far the northwestern part of the province. There are approximately 60 individual macaques, in six different troops, all more or less in the same general vicinity south of Jayapura city. Information received at the very end of this field study indicated that there may be an additional troop near Entrop that we did not directly document, but if so, their proximity to Jayapura as well as the general habitat are not significantly different from the other troops. Based on repeated community interviews and direct observation studies, we conclude that no macaque populations are present outside the Jayapura area. We found no evidence that macaques have spread into Papua New Guinea, the highlands of Papua, or the Bird’s Head region of Papua.2 There are, however, reliable reports of individual pet macaques being kept in Manokwari, Wasior3, and possibly other major towns and cities in Papua. As these animals seem to be all or mainly individuals kept in cages, this probably does not represent a major risk of immediate spread – at least not as great a threat as the wild-roaming populations – but it is alarming nonetheless, given the potential for accidental release/escape of a pregnant female etc. This phenomenon needs to be addressed through environmental education as part of a comprehensive macaque control strategy in Papua. Macaca fascicularis has adapted to several types of lowland habitat in Papua. The original groups of macaques were found in the sago-dominated swamps of Kotaraja. Little of this habitat now remains due to urban development, although one group is still found there. Other troops are found in degraded secondary forest planted with fruit trees, selectively logged forest (tall secondary forest) and some areas of primary forest. Macaca fascicularis are also adapted to living near busy roads, near human habitation, and are commonly seen traveling through alang-alang (i.e. anthropogenic Imperata grassland) close to their home range forest. Since more and more areas of forest are managed for logging or converted to agriculture in Papua, and because M. fascicularis prefers disturbed habitats, these factors will clearly increase their invasive potential in the future. The diet of M. fascicularis in Papua is consistent with those in their native range and other colonized habitats. We documented that their diet consists largely of fruit, especially figs (Ficus spp.) and those of planted fruit trees; leaves / young shoots, especially Intsia bijuga and Pandanus spp.; flowers; roots (cassava), bark (several spp. of liana, Aglaia and Pometia pinnata); sago pith 2 A single macaque individual was sighted by a local hunter along the Tami River area (i.e. outside the Kotaraja area between Jayapura and PNG). We conclude that this was probably an escaped pet and thus presents no danger in itself in terms of spread. The possibility of escape of additional males/female pairs or a gravid female is, however, unacceptably high. 3 May no longer be extant in Wasior. 5