Kant and the Human Sciences Biology, Anthropology and History Alix Cohen Kant and the Human Sciences August19,2009 18:10 MAC/KHS Page-i 9780230_224322_01_prexvi This page intentionally left blank Kant and the Human Sciences Biology, Anthropology and History Alix Cohen UniversityofLeeds August19,2009 18:10 MAC/KHS Page-iii 9780230_224322_01_prexvi ©AlixCohen2009 Allrightsreserved.Noreproduction,copyortransmissionofthis publicationmaybemadewithoutwrittenpermission. Noportionofthispublicationmaybereproduced,copiedortransmitted savewithwrittenpermissionorinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofthe Copyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988,orunderthetermsofanylicence permittinglimitedcopyingissuedbytheCopyrightLicensingAgency, SaffronHouse,6-10KirbyStreet,LondonEC1N8TS. Anypersonwhodoesanyunauthorizedactinrelationtothispublication maybeliabletocriminalprosecutionandcivilclaimsfordamages. Theauthorhasassertedherrighttobeidentified astheauthorofthisworkinaccordancewiththeCopyright, DesignsandPatentsAct1988. Firstpublished2009by PALGRAVEMACMILLAN PalgraveMacmillanintheUKisanimprintofMacmillanPublishersLimited, registeredinEngland,companynumber785998,ofHoundmills,Basingstoke, HampshireRG216XS. PalgraveMacmillanintheUSisadivisionofStMartin’sPressLLC, 175FifthAvenue,NewYork,NY10010. PalgraveMacmillanistheglobalacademicimprintoftheabovecompanies andhascompaniesandrepresentativesthroughouttheworld. Palgrave®andMacmillan®areregisteredtrademarksintheUnitedStates, theUnitedKingdom,Europeandothercountries. ISBN-13:978–0–230–22432–2hardback Thisbookisprintedonpapersuitableforrecyclingandmadefromfully managedandsustainedforestsources.Logging,pulpingandmanufacturing processesareexpectedtoconformtotheenvironmentalregulationsofthe countryoforigin. AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary. AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 PrintedandboundinGreatBritainby CPIAntonyRowe,ChippenhamandEastbourne August19,2009 18:10 MAC/KHS Page-iv 9780230_224322_01_prexvi Contents ListofTablesandFigures vii Abbreviations viii Acknowledgements ix Preface xi 1 FreedomandtheHumanSciences 1 1. Thefreedomatstakeinthehumansciences 1 2. Thestandpointofthehumansciences 8 2 TheModelofBiologicalScience 14 1. Thepart–wholerelationshipinorganisms 14 2. Teleologyandtheoriginoflife:Epigenesisvs. preformation 21 3. Teleologyandthehumanraces:Monogenesisvs. polygenesis 25 4. Freedom,intentionalityandtheantinomy ofreflectivejudgement 29 3 WhatIstheHumanBeing? 35 1. Anthropologyvs.alienology 35 (i) Thethreelevelsofhumanpraxisandtheiraliens 35 (ii) Sincerealiensvs.deceitfulhumans 40 (iii) Sincerealiensvs.opaquehumans 44 2. Thedifficultiesfacedbythehumansciences 52 (i) Methodologicalconsiderations 52 (ii) Experimentalconsiderations 55 (iii) Metaphysicalconsiderations 58 4 PragmaticAnthropology 61 1. Thepragmaticdomainasthefieldofhumanaction 62 (i) Theobjectofpragmaticanthropology 62 (ii) Themethodofpragmaticanthropology 65 (iii) Theaimofpragmaticanthropology 68 v August19,2009 18:10 MAC/KHS Page-v 9780230_224322_01_prexvi vi Contents 2. Atwofoldmethod:Naturalvs.pragmaticanthropology 71 (i) Theinterplaybetweenmanifestandlatent functions:Intentionalismvs.functionalism 71 (ii) Anthropologicalcharacterisation:Naturalhuman typesandNature’spurposes 76 3. Theethicalcontributionsofanthropology 84 (i) Anthropologyasasupporttothepracticabilityof moralwilling 86 (ii) Anthropologyasahelptomoralefficacy 89 (iii) Anthropologyasamap-makingventure 105 5 PhilosophicalHistory 109 1. Theantinomyofhistory:Teleologyvs.mechanism inhistoricalexplanations 110 (i) Thepart–wholerelationshipinthehumanspecies 110 (ii) Empiricalhistory:Amechanicalaccountofhuman intentions 114 (iii) Philosophicalhistory:Ateleologicalaccountof Nature’sintentions 117 2. Fromthecivilisationofsocietytothemoralisation ofthehumanbeing 122 (i) Theteleologicalstoryofcivilisation:Anatural historyofthehumanspecies 124 (ii) Theteleologicalstoryofmoralisation:Amoral historyofthehumanspecies 130 (iii) Pragmatichistory:Themoralpoliticianvs. thepoliticalmoralist 136 Epilogue:APragmaticCounterparttotheTranscendentalProject? 143 Notes 146 Bibliography 185 Index 194 August19,2009 18:10 MAC/KHS Page-vi 9780230_224322_01_prexvi List of Tables and Figures Tables 3.1 Thefourhumanracesandtheirlevelsofpraxis 40 3.2 Kant’sclassificationofhumantypes 49 4.1 Kant’santhropologicalclassificationofhumantypes 78 4.2 Nature’spurposesforthehumanspecies 84 4.3 Textuallybasedtableofindirectduties 92 4.4 Secondtableofindirectduties 95 4.5 TheconnectionbetweenNature’spurposesandhuman duties 97 4.6 Thesecondlocalroleofmoralanthropology 103 4.7 Anthropologicalhelpsandhindrancestotherealisation ofhumanpurposes 106 5.1 Thepart–wholerelationshipinthehumanspecies 112 E.1 Orientationinthinkingvs.orientationinacting 144 E.2 Transcendentalvs.pragmaticcontribution 145 Figures 2.1 Thetwoperspectivesonhumanphenomena 33 4.1 Twoperspectives:Intentionalismandfunctionalismin anthropology 75 4.2 Thecombinationofintentionalismandfunctionalismin anthropology 76 5.1 Twoperspectives:Empiricalvs.philosophicalhistory 121 5.2 Naturalvs.culturalteleology 129 5.3 Thetwoperspectivesofphilosophicalhistory: Moralisationvs.civilisation 139 vii August19,2009 18:10 MAC/KHS Page-vii 9780230_224322_01_prexvi Abbreviations Insofar as the following works are cited frequently, I have identified thembytheseabbreviations: Anthropology:AnthropologyfromaPragmaticPointofView C.B.:ConjecturalBeginningofHumanHistory C.F.:TheConflictofFaculties C.J.:CritiqueofthePowerofJudgment C.P.R.:CritiqueofPureReason C.Pr.R.:CritiqueofPracticalReason Determination:DeterminationoftheConceptofaHumanRace Groundwork:GroundworkoftheMetaphysicsofMorals Idea:IdeaforaUniversalHistorywithaCosmopolitanAim L.E.:LecturesonEthics L.A.:LecturesonAnthropology M.F.:MetaphysicalFoundationsofNaturalScience M.M.:TheMetaphysicsofMorals OftheDifferentRaces:OftheDifferentRacesofHumanBeings OntheUse:OntheUseofTeleologicalPrinciplesinPhilosophy P.P.:TowardPerpetualPeace Religion:ReligionwithintheBoundariesofMereReason T.P.:OntheCommonSaying:ThatMaybeCorrectinTheory,butItIsof NoUseinPractice W.O.T.:WhatDoesItMeantoOrientOneselfinThinking? InthereferencestoKant’swritings,Ihaveincludedacitationfromthe English translation, followed by a citation from the Akademie edition (volumeandpagenumber)inbrackets. viii August19,2009 18:10 MAC/KHS Page-viii 9780230_224322_01_prexvi Acknowledgements Anumberofpeoplehavegreatlycontributedtothisworkbygivingme invaluable assistance and feedback. Amongst them, I would like espe- cially to thank Fred Beiser, Marina Frasca-Spada, Nick Jardine, Robert Louden,Sasha Mudd, Onora O’Neill, Claudia Schmidt, Philip Stratton- Lake and John Zammito. I would also like to thank the referees whose commentshavehelpedmeimprovethenumerousdrafts,andmyeditor PriPathakforherunwaveringsupport. IalsowishtothankalltheparticipantsintheHPSKantreadinggroup inCambridge,andinparticularAngelaBreitenbach,YoonChoi,Daniel Elstein, Sacha Golob, Steven John and our favourite guest speaker, JensTimmermann.Oursometimesheatedbutalwaysfertilediscussions throughout the last few years have deeply enriched and furthered my understandingofKant’sphilosophy. IamparticularlyindebtedtoNewnhamCollege,Cambridge,forsup- porting me in all possible ways throughout my PhD and my Research Fellowship – most of the work on the manuscript was achieved during my time there. I am equally grateful to the Philosophy Department at theUniversityofLeedsforgivingmemuchneededteachingrelieftoput thefinaltouchestothemanuscript.Iwouldalsoliketothankmynew colleagues for their encouragement. Finally, I am grateful to Sébastien Rostforcreatingawonderfulcover,andChrisRenwickforhishelpwith theindex. On a more personal note, I wish to thank my friends and family for theirconstantsupport,andCainTodd,towhomIowethegreatestdebt. Iwouldliketoacknowledgethethreefundingbodiesthatmadethis study possible: the Arts and Humanities Research Council, the Cam- bridgeEuropeanTrustandtheBritishFederationofWomenGraduates. Earlyversionsofsomesectionsofthisbookhavebeenpublishedelse- where.Iwouldliketothanktheeditorsandpublishersofthesejournals forthepermissionofusingsomeofthesematerialshere. ‘Kant’s Concept of Freedom and the Human Sciences’, Canadian JournalofPhilosophy,vol.39(1),2009,pp.113–136. ‘Kant on Anthropology, Alienology and Physiognomy: The Opacity of Human Motivation and Its Anthropological Implications’, Kantian Review,vol.13(2),2008,pp.84–104. ix August19,2009 18:10 MAC/KHS Page-ix 9780230_224322_01_prexvi