“THE LONG-DEFENDED GATE”: JUVENILIA, THE REAL CHILD, AND THE AESTHETICS OF INNOCENCE, 1858-1939 by Anna Madeleine Redcay Bachelor of Arts, Princeton University, 2001 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Kenneth P. Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2012 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH KENNETH P. DIETRICH SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Anna Madeleine Redcay It was defended on October 7, 2011 and approved by Troy Boone, Associate Professor of English Jean F. Carr, Associate Professor of English; Director of Women’s Studies Amanda Godley, Associate Professor of English Education Dissertation Advisor: Marah Gubar, Associate Professor of English; Director of Children’s Literature Program ii Copyright © by Anna Madeleine Redcay 2012 iii “THE LONG-DEFENDED GATE”: JUVENILIA, THE REAL CHILD, AND THE AESTHETICS OF INNOCENCE, 1858-1939 Anna Madeleine Redcay, Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 2012 Scholars frequently protest against reference to the real child in relation to adult-authored children’s literature. My dissertation exposes the fundamental flaw in extending this injunction to the literary production of real children. By recovering the wildly popular, critically acclaimed and bestselling juvenilia of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, I contend that child- authored texts make manifest individual children’s absorption and manipulation of culture. Although critics such as Beverly Lyon Clark aptly note a growing bifurcation of children’s and adult’s literature at the turn of the century, I argue that adult and child authors alike participated in the construction of the “real child” as a trope of literary representation. In highlighting the centrality of the child’s individualistic voice to both juvenilia’s success and canonical literature’s innovations, however, I resist literary-historical narratives that characterize the era of the Cult of the Child as one straightforwardly invested in childhood innocence. Instead, I claim that authors such as Henry James, Robert Louis Stevenson, and Mark Twain joined the contemporary critics of child writers such as Marjory Fleming and Opal Whiteley in promoting a highly paradoxical aesthetics of innocence integral to the pursuit of narrative authenticity. I illustrate how the co- existence of idealized notions and pragmatic concerns regarding children in this time rendered the “long-defended gate” of childhood a prized but flexible boundary between innocence and experience. In keeping with such developments as the play movement, child study, and child- centered education, adults not only perceived children’s precocious talents as directly dependent iv upon their naiveté, but also went to great lengths to school children in this natural state. By reading juvenilia as children’s literature, however, I offer an interpretative methodology that resists Romantic binaries positing adults’ and children’s knowledge as distinctive from one another. Far from supporting Jacqueline Rose’s thesis that literature “colonizes” children, I assert that juvenilia marketed to young readers reveal the ways in which real children may actively engage with constructions of innocence and overcome the “impossible” power imbalance between children’s literature and children. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ....................................................................................................... VIII 1.0 INTRODUCTION: “THE LONG-DEFENDED GATE”: REAL CHILDREN AND THE PARADOXES OF INNOCENCE ............................................................................ 1 2.0 “AS FOR REGANING MY CHARACTER I DESPARE”: MARJORY FLEMING, HUCKLEBERRY FINN, AND THE AESTHETICS OF INNOCENCE .......... 22 2.1 FLEMING AND HER ADMIRERS ................................................................ 28 2.2 HUCK AND THE CRITICS............................................................................. 46 3.0 “LIVE TO LEARN AND LEARN TO LIVE”: THE ST. NICHOLAS LEAGUE AND THE VOCATION OF CHILDHOOD ............................................................................ 66 3.1 “ANOTHER KIND OF CHILDREN”: EARLY CHILD CONTRIBUTORS TO ST. NICHOLAS ........................................................................................................... 71 3.2 “FOUR HUNDRED ANGLO-SAXON WORDS”: THE ST. NICHOLAS LEAGUE AS GREAT COMPARATIVE SCHOOL ...................................................... 77 4.0 READING INNOCENCE: JUVENILIA AND THE PROTO-MODERNIST VOICE… ..................................................................................................................................... 98 4.1 DAISY ASHFORD, OPAL WHITELEY, AND THE INNOCENCE- KNOWLEDGE SPECTRUM .......................................................................................... 104 vi 4.2 “HER VISION OF HIS VISION OF HER VISION”: ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON AND HENRY JAMES’S CHILDREN .................................................. 123 5.0 “GENUINE CHILD’S PLAY”: AUTHENTICATING THE FICTION OF THE INNOCENT PROFESSIONAL ............................................................................................... 143 5.1 “BY CHILDREN, ABOUT CHILDREN, FOR CHILDREN”: HULL AND WHITLOCK’S OXUS TRILOGY .................................................................................. 153 5.2 “THREE CHILDREN COME ALONG AND COUGH AND OUT COMES A BESTSELLER”: THE ABBES’ TRAVEL MEMOIRS ........................................... 176 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 196 vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS At the conclusion of any intellectual project, a debt of gratitude is owed in both professional and personal spheres. This dissertation was generously funded by a Richard C. and Barbara N. Tobias Fellowship as well as a Mellon Predoctoral Fellowship, grants representative of two happy years of uninterrupted research and writing. A Kenneth P. Dietrich School of Art and Sciences Research Travel Grant also allowed me to explore the rare and rich holdings in juvenilia at the National Library of Scotland and the British Library. What the University of Pittsburgh as an entity provided financially, its professors provided in time, energy, and intellectual support. To Jean F. Carr, I am grateful particularly for the introduction to the pleasures of the archive. For never letting “good enough” be good enough and keeping me true to deadlines, I thank Troy Boone. This dissertation and its author owe a deep debt to Marah Gubar. Her swift and incisive feedback; her scholarly enthusiasm; her warmth; and her encouragement to apply, submit, revise, complete, and otherwise “go for it,” helped to render an abstract idea with an unlikely topic into a viable and meaningful project. There are those in one’s life one feels one could never have been without, and whose company and backing one could never now forego. For bridging the professional and personal sides of my life, for being the best colleague, reader, and friend a girl could have, I am daily thankful for Amy Murray Twyning. To my family, I would like to express my gratitude for each time they allowed me to pigheadedly proceed with the impractical in my life. Thanks are owed viii especially to Anne Bower, for reading the resultant drafts. Isla Redcay Bower, my daughter (who’ll proudly tell you she is now “twEN-ty months” old), did little to help with the completion of this dissertation, but everything to make it worthwhile. In contrast, the constant support and companionship of my husband Isaac Bower made the difference in seeing my work come to fruition. For all the meals, pep talks, therapy sessions, strategizing, indoctrination into the ways of caffeine, and various other signs of your love, I can only say “thank you” and continue to wonder how it could possibly be enough. Finally, special thanks are due to Ellison Lieberman, whose proclamation that “one must read Daisy Ashford’s work, as there’s simply nothing else like it,” started it all. ix 1.0 INTRODUCTION: “THE LONG-DEFENDED GATE”: REAL CHILDREN AND THE PARADOXES OF INNOCENCE Between 1919 and the advent of World War II, an unprecedented vogue for child-authored texts peaked, with at least fifty-six juvenilia appearing in the 1920s and seventy-four in the 1930s.1 These books were published by major houses such as Putnam, Macmillan, and Knopf and reviewed by critics in national newspapers like the New York and London Times. In this dissertation, I argue that these now mostly forgotten texts are not marginal ephemera, but rather key cultural artifacts that offer an alternate narrative about not only the relationship of real children to Anglo-American literature, but also the construction of innocence in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Through my analyses of juvenilia, I call into question the widespread notion that adults in this time period guarded the divide between their own experiences and those of children without ambivalence. Instead, contemporary responses to these texts reveal profoundly paradoxical definitions of innocence that blur such lines, allowing readers to credit the child author simultaneously for her knowledge of literary convention and her 1 These figures are based upon Jane B. Wilson’s bibliography of published children’s writing and represent texts written by authors under eighteen and issued by major publishing companies in the United States or England. These numbers do not include anthologies or privately printed materials. My own research suggests that there are famous texts missing from Wilson’s 1982 compilation, such as Pamela Brown’s The Swish of the Curtain (1941). See Wilson, Children’s Writings. 1