JUSTINIAN II OF BYZANTIUM Constance Head· THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN PRESS Madison, Milwaukee, and London 3 0 01 CONTENTS vii ILLUSTRATIONS ix l'f\EFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii ,1, JUSTINIAN'S WORLD 3 "" PROBLEMS OF THE SOURCES 14 3 HEIR APPARENT: 66g--685 19 4 JUSTINIAN, THE ARABS, AND THE SLAV S 28 5 JUSTINIAN IN THESSALONIKI 37 6 THE ARAB-BYZANTINE WAR OF 692 45 7 BUILDINGS AND COINS 52 Published 1972 8 JUSTINIAN, CHAMPION OF ORTHODOXY 59 The University of Wisconsin Press H THE CANONS OF THE QUINISEXT COUNCIL 65 Box 1379, Madison, Wisconsin 53701 10 POPE SERGIUS PROTESTS 72 The University of Wisconsin Press, Ltd. 11 SOLDIERS AND FARMERS 8o 70 Great Russell Street, London, WC1B 3BY 12 FINANCE MINISTERS AND ARISTOCRATS 88 13 THE REVOLT OF LEONTIOS 92 Copyright© 1972 14 CHERSON AND KHAZARIA 99 The Regents of the University of Wisconsin 15 JUSTINIAN's RETURN 108 All rights reserved 16 RESTORATION AND REPRISALS: THE LION AND THE ASP 112 FIRST PRINTING 17 THE QUEST FOR ALLIES 123 Printed in the United States of America 18 THE ADVENTURES OF LEO 128 NAPCO, Inc., Milwaukee, Wisconsin ]9 COMPROMISE WITH THE PAPACY 132 20 JUSTINIAN AND RAVENNA: A MATTER OF MOTIVE 137 ISBN 0-299-0603()-6; LC 79-161497 21 THE CHERSON CRISIS 142 22 CONCLUSION 151 vi CO~TE;:\;TS CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE LIFE AND HEIGNS OF JUSTINIAN li HISTORICAL LISTS SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ILLUSTRATIONS INDEX Mosaic in the Church of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, 1 Ravenna 23 Constantine IV; coin of his reign, 668-685 25 2 3 Justinian 11 at 16; coin of his first reign 30 Justinian 11 at about 19; coin of his first reign 31 4 5 Justinian 11 in loros (reverse of coin in Figure 6) s6 6 Image of Christ introduced on Justinian's coinage c. 6g1/6g2 57 7 Leontios; coin of his reign, 6gs-6g8 97 8 Tiberius Apsimar; coin of his reign, 6g8-705 103 9 Image of Christ ("Syrian" type) used on coinage of Justinian's second reign 114 Justinian 11 at 36; coin of his second reign 115 lO Justinian 11 with his son and eo-emperor, Tiberius 11 (reverse of coin in Figure g) 121 12 Philippikos Vardan; coin of his reign, 711-713 147 MAPS Byzantine Empire and surrounding territory at the time of Justinian 11 10 and 11 PREFACE THERE are few sovereigns in Byzantine history more interesting than Justinian II, the emperor who lost his nose but who never lost his will to rule, who lived for ten years in exile, wandered among the bar barians, escaped innumerable dangers, and finally regained his throne only to lose it again. Yet, if he is among the most color ful of the emperors, Justinian II is also among the most obscure. The period in which he lived-the late seventh and the early eighth century-is an epoch unusually poor in source material. It was a crucial era, a time when great events were taking place in East and West, yet because so few sources have sur vived, it remains an era neglected by historians. Thus while 11 great deal is known about the earlier development of the Byzantine (or East Roman) Empire, the relative lack of first hand sources has rendered the seventh and eighth centuries a veritable Byzantine Dark Age. Many volumes have been writ ten about the justly famous sixth-century emperor Justinian I, yet there has never been a book-length study of Justinian II. Moreover, in many of the larger works where the second Justinian's reign is accorded some treatment, historians have tended to accept data from the meager early chronicle sources in a rather uncritical manner. Still, in spite of the difficulties of research in this obscure period, the very neglect which it has been accorded points to the need for further scholarly effort. The present volume by no means claims to be a definitive study of Justinian II; it is designed more for the student of history and the general reader ix X PREFACE PREFACE xi than for the specialist. Byzantine scholars will notice at once nil these reasons, he invites our understanding. To contribute that the primary materials used have long been known; there to such understanding is the major objective of this work, and is nothing really new here in the way of source information. it is my hope that from it will emerge a clearer picture of Nevertheless, readers who possess an extensive background in Jn stinian II of Byzantium, both as a sovereign and as a person. Byzantine history will recognize, too, that this presentation of Justinian II's history at times departs considerably from the CoNSTANCE HEAD usual interpretation of his actions. Cullowhee, North Carolina I first became interested in Justinian because of the intrin July 1971 sic fascination of his life story, yet I believed at the outset of my research that he was completely as the early chroniclers picture him: irresponsible, intensely cruel, devoid of any redeeming features. Then, during the course of my studies, I became increasingly impressed by numerous small bits and pieces of evidence revealing Justinian as an intelligent states man and a conscientious sovereign. It became clear, also, that apparently no effort had been made to collect these items into one work and thereby to muster a formidable challenge to the adverse evaluation that has come down to us from the early chronicles. Particularly is this true of his second reign. His torians who have dealt with this period have often become so preoccupied with the chroniclers' gruesome tales of the dis figured emperor, driven by frantic desire for vengeance, that they have made no real attempt to consider in a more balanced light what Justinian was trying to do. Justinian II, Emperor of the Byzantines, lived in a violent and troubled era, and undoubtedly there was in his character a reflection of the violence of the age in which he lived. It would be as serious an error to discard the chroniclers' reports entirely as it is to accept their every word as historical fact. Justinian made many grave mistakes, especially in his second reign, mistakes which a man of more balanced judgment and calmer temperament would have avoided. Still, above all, it is to be remembered that this emperor of thirteen centuries ago was a human being: living, working, planning, worrying, as people generally do. He was, moreover, a man who bore great tragedy and who eventually had to learn to live with the inescapable reality of his disfigurement. For Acknowledgments l wish to express gratitude to all the following individuals and institutions who have assisted in various ways in the completion of this book: To the editors of Byzantion for permission to incorporate parts of my article "Towards a Reinterpretation of the Second Reign of Justinian II" (Byzantion 40 [1970]: 14-32) in this work. To Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies for permis sion to reproduce photos of coins from the Dumbarton Oaks Collection. To the personnel of the Cartographic Laboratory of the Uni versity of Wisconsin, who produced the maps. To Professor John W. Barker of the University of Wisconsin, who read the manuscript and made many helpful suggestions. To Professors Charles R. Young, Ray C. Petry, and W. F. Stine spring of Duke University and Max R. Williams of Western Carolina University, all of whom read parts of the manuscript at earlier stages and gave me the benefit of their constructive criticism. To Mr. Emerson Ford of Duke University and Mrs. Joan K. Leseuer of Western Carolina University for obtaining much-needed and often-hard-to-find materials through Interlibrary Loan. And most of all to my mother, who first taught me to love history and who has been the source of unfailing encouragement through my five years' research on Justinian II. JUSTINIAN II OF BYZANTIUM I JUSTINIAN's WORLD c ONSTANTINE IV, Emperor of Byzantium, was a blond, handsome youth of seventeen when his eldest son Justinian was born in the Year of Our Lord 66g. Justinian: the name itself was heavy with significance. More than a hundred years earlier ( 527-565) the magnificent Jus tinian the Great, lawgiver and builder extraordinary, had ruled the Byzantine world, and the fame of his achievements had never been forgotten. To the young emperor Constantine this splendid predecessor was the embodiment of the imperial ideal, the model whom he longed to emulate. Thus, although he could claim no blood relationship with his hero, he departed from the custom of his own dynasty in which the eldest son was always called Constantine or Heraclius and bestowed upon his first-born the glorious name of Justinian. It was a heritage which, for good or ill, would influence Justinian II all his life: he was to grow up intensely proud of his name and of the great emperor who had borne it before him, so much, in fact, that at times he consciously attempted to imitate the exploits of Justinian I. Ironically, however, history would not accord to the second Justinian the enduring fame that even to this day sur rounds the reputation of the first one. With the passing of cen turies, he has become so generally forgotten that historians rarely even bother to attach the imperial number "I" to his namesake, tacitly implying by its omission that no other 3 4 JUSTI::'\IAI'\ II JUSTI:'\IAK's WOHLD 5 Emperor Justinian ever existed. Justinian II, we may be sure, Byzantine emperor-one small indication of the growing pre would be most unhappy over this historiographical quirk. pomleranee of the Greek heritage over the Roman as medieval But in spite of the undue neglect with which history has Byzantium evolved. To the ancient Greeks, too, can largely be treated him, diligent searching reveals a surprising amount of ascribed the love of learning and respect for beautiful things information about this highly unconventional sovereign. The that is so much a part of the Byzantine nature. It was the events of his life story-the cruel disfigurement of his face and Byzantines, incidentally, who preserved down through medie loss of his throne, his years of exile and his wanderings among val times almost all that we have left of ancient Greek litera tribes beyond the frontiers of his empire, the heroism of the ture and history. And if they are justly to be pronounced not barbarian girl who loved him and whom he made his empress so creative as their Greek forebears in the area of literary whPn hP harl rPgnirwrl his throne, his eventual death at the nchievement, the Byzantines certainly possessed a full measure hands of a mutinous army-comprise a narrative stranger than of originality in the realm of art. Their incomparable mosaics fiction. "f..Ioreover, through the all-too-meager sources relating and their magnificent achievements in the construction of these adventures, the character of the man himself is always domes are but their two best-known contributions in the artis close to the surface: Justinian of Byzantium, born to the tic field. Like much else in the Byzantine world, their art purple, imperious, hot-tempered, willful, sometimes cruel, yet testifies to this people's blending of Near Eastern ideas with indisputably brave and intelligent and above all possessed of the Graeco-Roman heritage to form something unique. invincible determination to overcome adversity. He is, in brief, It is the presence of the Near Eastern element that per a man still very much alive across a gulf of thirteen centuries. haps contributes most to the Byzantine imperial mystique Justinian is more, however, than a fascinating personality; and to ·western difficulty in understanding this long-vanished for sixteen years ( 685-6g5 and 705-711) he was head of state empire. Oriental ideas of absolute rulership had, of course, of the strongest Christian nation in the world of his time, and already made themselves felt in the Hellenistic monarchies and as such would have vast impact upon the development of his in the Roman Empire, but it is Byzantium that exemplifies the empire at one of the most crucial eras in its long history. theory of absolutism par excellence. Although unlike the pagan sovereigns of antiquity the Christian Byzantine emperors could What sort of state was this Byzantine Empire in the early not claim to be worshipped as divinities, they did play to the medieval centuries? All too often historians have tended to full their role as God's deputy on earth. Surrounded by all the picture it merely as a curious afterglow of imperial Rome. It splendor and luxury of the imperial palaces, decked in silk is true that to the Byzantine mind, Constantinople, the impe brocade and bejewelled golden ornaments, the emperors of rial capital, was the New Rome; the emperors who reigned Byzantium inspired the awe and envy of the world. there were the successors of the Caesars. But to understand Yet any man might become basileus; lowly birth was no bar Byzantium as the continuator of the Roman Empire is to see to the throne, for God's hand could select His chosen one from only one aspect of its multifaceted character. Actually Byzan any walk of life. Dynasties before the seventh century had tine civilization was a composite of Roman, Greek, oriental, invariably lasted only two or three generations; then indeed, and early Christian ways of thought, blending to produce a the old pattern seemed to be changing, for since Heraclius of culture as distinct from its classical antecedents as it was from Carthage seized the throne in 610, his descendants had suc the medieval West. ceeded in an unbroken, orderly line. Still, what God had given, By the seventh century, the Greek title Basileus had come God might take away .... to replace the Latin Augustus as the favorite title of the Practically no Byzantine would have questioned the idea 6 JUSTINIAN II JUSTINIAN'S WORLD 7 that the hand of God moved in history, for religion was a very over, rendered it easily defensible, and the excellent fortifica real force in the Byzantine world, an element of vital impor tions built by the early emperors would prove their worth on tance in the daily lives of everyone from the hasileus down to innumerable occasions. his poorest subjects. Icons of Christ and the saints could be It was fortunate indeed that Byzantium possessed such a found in almost every home, a perennial reminder of the near strategically located capital, for throughout the Empire's long ness of the unseen world. Miracles, signs and portents, dreams history, it was the strength of the capital that time and again foretelling the future-all were common enough occurences assured the survival of the state. The seventh-century Empire in this environment where the orthodox Christian faith was -into which Justinian II was born and over which he would inextricably interwoven with popular superstition and legend. eventually rule-was a state beset by frequent crises. More Because orthodoxy mattered so much to the Byzantine than by any other single factor, the Mediterranean world of people, and because the immediate enemies of the early Em the seventh century was shaken by the sudden and rapid rise pire were largely non-Christian (or at least non-orthodox), it of Islam. It was in the reign of Justinian II's great-great-grand comes as no surprise that the emperors capitalized on their role father, Heraclius of Carthage, that the followers of the Prophet as defenders of Christendom. In the Early Middle Ages, with Mohammed first rode out of the Arabian desert to launch the the great days of the Western monarchies yet to dawn, Byzan conquests that have affected the course of Near Eastern history tium was indisputably the one great Christian power. At a time from that day to this. The Byzantine state, exhausted by a when much of Western Europe was overrun by Germanic long and devastating war with Persia, the ancient foe of the tribesmen and eventually imperial authority disappeared in Roman Empire, was ill prepared for these incursions of the most of these areas, the Empire in the East with its great Moslems. The Emperor Heraclius had spent much of his reign capital at Constantinople stood firm. The popes in Old Rome .in the struggle against Persia, and although ultimately he had on the far western fringe of the Empire, the kings of the bar led his troops to complete victory over this ancient enemy, it barian West, monks in cloisters as far away as Britain-all was only at the cost of a heavy financial drain and tremendous dated important events by the reigns of the emperors in Con losses of men and materials. The invasions of a new foe, the stantinople. Diminished though its territorial sway might be, Moslems, so soon thereafter, were almost too much for the Constantinople was still the center of the world in the mind weakened Byzantine Empire. Heraclius, moreover, who had of the Early Middle Ages. been an outstanding military commander in earlier years, was The imperial city, whose population throughout most of growing old; burdened down by many ills, physical and men the medieval epoch is estimated at about one million inhabi tal, he had lost the dynamic leadership ability that had once tants, was a bustling metropolis. It was the first Emperor made him the hero of his people. Constantine who had transformed the small seaside town of Still the Byzantines under Heraclius and under his descen Byzantium into his capital in A.D. 330 and given it his name. dants would pUt up a gallant fight against the Arab invaders, He had chosen an excellent site. Surrounded on three sides by though for a long time it was to be a losing one. In the middle water-the Sea of Marmora to the south, the Bosphoros to the years of the seventh century several of the finest provinces of east, and the vast natural harbor of the Golden Horn to the the Empire slipped irrevocably into Moslem hands: the Holy north-Constantinople was on the crossroads of east-west Land, Syria, Egypt; while Asia Minor, the heartland of the trade, and goods (including many luxury items) from the far Byzantine state, became prey to almost annual incursions by corners of the world would be bought and sold in its market Moslem raiders. Not even Constantinople itself was immune places for centuries. The geographic location of the city, more- from danger, and Justinian in his childhood was to witness the