The American University in Cairo School of Humanities and Social Sciences Jesus According to Ibn al-’Arabī and Christian Scholars A Thesis Submitted to Department of Arab and Islamic Civilizations in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degrees of Master of Arts By Yoo Jeong Jae Under the supervision of Dr. Saiyad Nizamuddin Ahmad The American University in Cairo Jesus According to Ibn al-’Arabī and Christian Scholars A Thesis Submitted by Yoo Jeong Jae To the Department of Arab and Islamic Civilizations February / 2013 In partial fulfillment of the requirements for The degree of Master of Arts Has been approved by Dr. Saiyad Nizamuddin Ahmad Thesis Committee Advisor ______________________________________________ Professor, Department of Arab and Islamic Civilizations, the American University in Cairo Dr. Michael Reimer Thesis Committee Reader ______________________________________________ Professor, Department of History, the American University in Cairo Dr. Adam Talib Thesis Committee Reader ______________________________________________ Assistant Professor, Department of Arab and Islamic Civilizations, the American University in Cairo _______________ ____________ ________________ ___________ Dept. Chair Date Dean of HUSS Date   ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr.  Saiyad Nizamuddin Ahmad, for all the help he has given me in this work; to my two readers Dr. Michael Reimer and Dr. Adam Talib for providing me with constructive comments.   iii ABSTRACT The American University in Cairo Jesus According to Ibn al-’Arabī and Christian Scholars By: Jeong Jae Yoo Supervisor: Dr. Saiyad Nizamuddin Ahmad Despite the differences between Islam and Christianity, Islam is the only non-Christian religion in the world, which requires its adherents to believe that Jesus is one of the prophets of God. Ibn al-’Arabī, one of the Sufi mystics of the 12th century, wrote an entire chapter devoted to Jesus in his book, Fuṣūṣ al-ḥikam, translated as the Bezels (or Seals) of Wisdom. In this chapter, Jesus is characterized by five names that most clearly explain his attributes. These names are ‘the Spirit of God’, ‘the Word of God’, ‘the Breath of God’, ‘the Mercy of God’, and ‘the Slave of God’. Each of these names represents an important characteristic that Ibn al-’Arabī wishes to convey about Jesus as the Seal of the general Sainthood, his most famous notion manifested in all of Ibn al- ’Arabī’s writings. Christian scholars such as Thomas Aquinas, St Anselm of Canterbury and Meister Eckhart – who lived during the same period - wrote a considerable amount on Christian doctrines. These writers discussed crucial topics such as the Trinity, the virgin birth, the Judgment day, the angels, and more. This thesis is a comparative study of Jesus as portrayed by Ibn al-’Arabī and the three Christian scholars: analyzing and comparing the embedded meanings of the five names mentioned above. It can be concluded that all of the differences between Ibn al-’Arabī and Christian scholars derived from fundamentally divergent perspectives on the deity of Jesus Christ. Although there are some superficial similarities, there is not any significant similarity between the two sides.   iv TABLE OF CONTENTS • Introduction 1 • Chapter 1: the Muslim Jesus 4 • Chapter 2: Ibn al-’Arabī and Jesus 23 • Chapter 3: The Seal of the Saints 31 • Chapter 4: Jesus in Fuṣūṣ al-ḥikam 46 • Chapter 5: Comparison 64 • Conclusions 85 • Bibliography 87     v INTRODUCTION Despite the differences between Islam and Christianity, Islam is the only non-Christian religion in the world, which requires its adherents to believe in Jesus as one of the prophets of God. Ibn al-’Arabī (d. 1240 A.D.), one of the Sufi mystics of the 12th century, wrote an entire chapter devoted to Jesus in his renowned book, Fuṣūṣ al-ḥikam, translated as the Bezels (or Seals) of Wisdom. As the final work of Ibn al-’Arabī, it is considered to have the summary of his abstruse doctrines. In this thesis, the chapter fifteen on Jesus, “The Wisdom of Prophecy in the Word of Jesus”1 will be discussed in depth. Before discussing Ibn al-’Arabī’s view on Jesus, it is important to understand the Islamic perspective in general. As stated above, Islam is the only non-Christian religion that accepts Jesus as a prophet of God. The Islamic belief requires Muslims to believe in the virgin birth, the miracles, and the second coming of Jesus Christ. On the other hand, they disagree on the most significant aspect of the Christian Jesus, his deity. Muslims reject the deity of Christ and events related to it, such as the crucifixion and the resurrection. There are several verses in the Quran, explicitly rejecting the doctrine of Trinity as shirk2 (polytheism), one of the gravest sins in Islam.3 As a Muslim, Ibn al-’Arabī shares similar views. The role of Jesus in his life is significant and unique. At the core of Ibn al-’Arabī’s writings, lies the idea of the ‘Seal of the Saints’ and all other concepts are but facets of it.4 Michel Chodkiewicz, a French philosopher, explains this doctrine extremely well in his book, Seal of the Saints. The doctrine dictates that there are three Seals. The first seal is the Seal of the Prophets who is Muhammad. The second seal is the Seal of the general Sainthood, who is Jesus Christ. The last seal is the Seal of the Muhammadan Saint, who is Ibn al-’Arabī himself. This                                                                                                                 1 The translation is of R.W.J. Austin, The Bezels of Wisdom (New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1980) 174 was used for the title of chapter 15. 2 The Quran 4:171, 5:76. 3 The Quran 4:116 4 Ibn al-’Arabī, Fuṣūṣ al-ḥikam, trans. R.W.J. Austin (New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1980), 25.   1 doctrine of the Seal of the Saints is considered scandalous to most people even to this day for he was accused of arguing that he was superior to the prophets and messengers. It is also imperative to delineate which Christian belief is to be compared with Ibn al-’Arabī’s thoughts. “A Christian view” would be too general; ranging from the majority of the groups who espouse general doctrines announced at the Council of Nicaea (held in 325 AD) to those “heretics” denying defining doctrines. For a fruitful comparison, which encompasses the majority of Christian opinion and remains historically accurate, two conditions need to be met. First, the scholars to be compared had to be Christian scholars from a similar period, from the 12th and 13th centuries. Since both Islam and Christianity have evolved, it would not be historically accurate to compare Ibn al-Arabī’s understanding of Christianity to modern evangelical Christianity. Second, I have selected the orthodox Christians who hold on to the traditional tenets upheld by the 1st Nicene Council in 325 A.D. Historically, although there were many groups who espoused different teachings, the agreement made at Nicaea serves to this day as the cornerstone of the Christian religion. The most prominent Christian scholar to satisfy both conditions was Thomas Aquinas, revered as one of the greatest Christian scholars by both Protestant and Catholic believers. Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274 A.D.) adheres to the general characteristics of Jesus laid out by the Nicene Creed. Aquinas adamantly sticks to the Sonship of Christ; his deity, salvation through Christ, and his resurrection are pivotal doctrines in the Creed.5 The notions of other prominent Christian scholars from the same period will also be included in the study in order to broaden its scope. A Christian scholar from a similar period by the name of St. Anselm of Canterbury (d. 1109 A.D.). In his treatise, “Monologion” and “Proslogion”, he also writes about the Trinity and the deity of Christ. The third scholar is Meister Eckhart (d. 1329 A.D.), who also wrote considerable amount on the doctrine of the Trinity.                                                                                                                 5 The Nicene Creed, http://www.creeds.net/ancient/nicene.htm   2 Note on Transliteration In this thesis, I used the following transliteration system: اﺍ omit بﺏ b تﺕ t ثﺙ th جﺝ j حﺡ ḥ خﺥ kh دﺩ d ذﺫ dh رﺭ r زﺯ z سﺱ s شﺵ sh صﺹ ṣ ضﺽ ḍ طﻁ ṭ ظﻅ ẓ عﻉ ‘ (ayn) غﻍ gh فﻑ f قﻕ q كﻙ k لﻝ l مﻡ m نﻥ n هﻩ h وﻭ w يﻱ y Rules of Application: 1. The long vowels romanized ū, ī and ā, respectively. 2. (tā’ marbūṭah) in the construct state was romanized t; otherwise it was romanized h.   3 Chapter 1: The Muslim Jesus Constant reports on Islam-Christian conflicts often give people an impression that the two religions are hostile to each other. Although Christianity wholly rejects Islam, Islam accepts considerable amount of Christianity, some Muslims even accepting the authenticity of the Bible. In addition to this, Jesus is highly revered by Muslims as one of their prophets. In fact, Muslims are obligated to revere Jesus more than they ought to revere other Muslim prophets. Jesus’ significance in Islam has produced innumerable volumes of Islamic books on Jesus Christ. It would be an insurmountable task to discuss the Muslim Jesus in the allotted space. Because of divergent ways of interpreting their Holy Scriptures, the two religions enjoy wide spectrum of beliefs. In this chapter, the general comparison between the two religions was conducted by comparing their Scriptures; for Islam, the Quran and the ḥadīth, and for Christianity, the Bible. The translations of the ḥadīth accounts were borrowed from Tarif Khalidi’s book, The Muslim Jesus. The Virgin Birth The story of Jesus begins with his conception in both the Quran and the Bible. There are only minute differences between the two accounts. They both capture the essence of the event i.e. the virgin birth. The Quran begins the story with Mary’s encounter with the Angel Gabriel (Jibril). Behold! the angels said: “O Mary! God giveth thee glad tidings of a Word from Him: his name will be Christ Jesus, the son of Mary, held in honour in this world and the Hereafter and of (the company of) those nearest to God; "He shall speak to the people in childhood and in maturity. And he shall be (of the company) of the righteous." She said: "O my Lord! How shall I have a son when no man hath touched me?" He said: "Even so: God createth what He willeth: When He hath decreed a plan, He but saith to it, 'Be,' and it is! "And God will teach him the Book and Wisdom, the Law and the Gospel, "And (appoint him) an apostle to the Children of Israel, (with this message): "'I have come to you, with a Sign from your Lord, in that I make for you out of clay, as it were, the figure of a bird, and   4 breathe into it, and it becomes a bird by God's leave: And I heal those born blind, and the lepers, and I quicken the dead, by God's leave; and I declare to you what ye eat, and what ye store in your houses. Surely therein is a Sign for you if ye did believe;.6 Interestingly, the Quran does not contain any information about the birth of Muhammad; whereas, the birth of Jesus Christ is recorded quite vividly, even more vivid than the Christian accounts. The story of the Virgin Birth highlights two important points: Mary’s character and the miraculous nature of the conception. In this passage, Mary sounds intimidated when the Angel Gabriel appears before her. Her first response is, “I seek refuge from thee to (God) Most Gracious: (come not near) if thou dost fear God.”7 In another part of the Quran, it says that the Angel Gabriel appeared before her as ‘a man in all respects’8. The reason Mary is intimidated, according to Ibn al-’Arabī, is because she thought the man before her would force her to have intercourse with him.9 By examining how Mary sought refuge to God, Mary’s righteous character can be deduced from the passage. When Angel Gabriel informs her that she will conceive a child, Mary is perplexed, for she was chaste. The Quran testifies to her virginity: And (remember) her who guarded her chastity: We breathed into her of Our spirit, and We made her and her son a sign for all peoples.10 The Virgin Birth began when God [We] breathed ‘His Spirit’ into Mary through Gabriel. It is this very reason that Jesus is called ‘the Spirit of God’ in the Quran and the writings of Ibn al-’Arabī. The notion of ‘the Spirit of God’ and ‘the Breath of God’ will be further elaborated in the upcoming chapters. The analyses of these notions are utilized by Ibn al- ’Arabī as crucial means to explain the human side of Jesus.                                                                                                                 6 Abdullah Yusuf Ali, trans., The Meanings of the Holy Quran (London: The Islamic Computer Centre), 003.042-049. 7 Abdullah Yusuf Ali, trans., The Meanings of the Holy Quran, 019.018. 8 Abdullah Yusuf Ali, trans., The Meanings of the Holy Quran, 019.017. 9 R.W.J. Austin, trans., The Bezels of Wisdom (Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1980) 175. 10 Abdullah Yusuf Ali, trans., The Meanings of the Holy Quran, 021.091.   5