Japanese Castles in Korea 1592-98 STEPHENTURNBULListhe world'sleadingEnglish-language authorityonmedievalJapanand thesamurai.Hehastravelled extensivelyintheFarEast, particularlyinJapanandKorea, andistheauthorofTheSamurai - AMilitaryHistoryandalarge numberofOspreytitles. PETERDENNISwasbornin 1950.Inspiredbycontemporary magazinessuchasLookand Learnhestudiedillustrationat LiverpoolArtCollege.Peterhas sincecontributedtohundreds ofbooks,predominantlyon historicalsubjects.Heisakeen wargamerandmodelmaker.He isbasedinNottinghamshire, UK. Fortress • 67 Japanese Castles in Korea 1592-98 Stephen Turnbull · Illustrated by Peter Dennis Series editors Marcus Cowperand Nikolai Bogdanovic Firstpublishedin2007byOspreyPublishing fortresses;calledin Koreanwaeseongandinjapanesewajo- 'thecastles MidlandHouse,WestWay,Botley,OxfordOX2OPH,UK ofthepeopleofwa'- wabeinganancientnameforjapan. 443ParkAvenueSouth,NewYork,NY10016,USA Althoughsomeofthewajositeshavebeen partiallyrestored,most E-mail:info@ospreypub/ishing.com arecompletelyderelict,andmanydisappearaltogethereverysummer ©2007OspreyPublishingLimited underablanketofuncheckedfoliage.SomeKoreansregardthemas an unwelcomereminderofatimeofcolonialoppression,whileothers Allrightsreserved.Apartfromanyfairdealingforthepurposeofprivatestudy, seetheirruinedforms assymbolsofthepoweroftheKorean people research,criticismorreview,aspermittedundertheCopyright,DesignsandPatents tosuccessfullyresistan invader.Yettheirneglectedsites,where Act,1988,nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem, uneven pathsprovidetheonlyaccessand Koreanfarmersgrow ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,electrical,chemical,mechanical, optical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionof vegetables,haveensuredthesurvivalofthewajoasuniquelyimportant thecopyrightowner.EnquiriesshouldbeaddressedtothePublishers. militaryfossils.Duringtheearly 17thcentury,castlesinjapanitself hadgraceful keepsandtowersbuiltontopoftheircharacteristically ISBN978 I84603 1045 massivestonebases,aprocessthatoftenobscuredtheiroriginal militaryfunctions.Thewajosawnosuchalteration,andnowoffer EditorialbylIiosPublishing,Oxford,UK(www.iliospublishing.com) CartographybyTheMapStudioLtd,Romsey,UK avaluableinsightintotheoriginaldesignsandfunctionsofjapanese TypesetinMonotypeGillSansandITCStoneSerif castlesduringtheageofthegreatcivilwars. DesignbyKenVailGraphicDesign,Cambridge.UK Theeraofthewajowasthereforebothbriefandviolent.Myprevious IndexbyAlisonWorthington bookinOsprey'sFortressSeries,Fortress57:TheGreatWallofChina OriginatedbyUnitedGraphicPteLtd,Singapore 221 BC-AD 1644(OspreyPublishingLtd:Oxford,2007)dealtwith PrintedinChinathroughBookbuilders afortifiedstructurethatencompassedamillenniumandahalfof 07080910II 1098765432 I constructionhistoryandsawmilitaryactionaslateas 1945.Inmarked contrast,thetimespanofthejapanesefortressesinKoreafromtheir AC1PcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary. initialconstructiontotheirtotalabandonmentlastedscarcelysixyears. Yetinthatshortspaceoftimetheyexperiencedasmuchfightingas FORACATALOGUEOFALLBOOKSPUBLISHEDBYOSPREYPLEASECONTACT: theGreatWallofChinadidinthewholeofits2,000-year-longhistory. OspreyDirect,cloRandomHouseDistributionCenter,400HahnRoad, ThisbookprovidesthefirstcompleteaccountinEnglishofthewajo,a Westminster.MD21157 topicItoucheduponbrieflyinmyearlierworkSamuraiInvasion:Japan's Email: [email protected] KoreanWar 1592-1598(Cassells:London,2002).Sinceresearchingthat OspreyDirectUK,P.O.Box/40,Wellingborough.Northants,NN82FA,UK bookIhavebenefitedfrommuchnewmaterialonthewajoandhave E-mail:[email protected] beenabletocorrectseveralerrorsofnomenclatureandlocation. www.ospreypublishing.com Thirtysitesinallhavenowbeenidentified,allofwhicharecoveredhere. Manywajohavebeenexcavatedinrecentyears,andIwishtoexpressmy thankstoKurodaKeiichi,whohasbeenpersonallyresponsibleforthe Editor's note archaeologicalstudyofseveralsites;andwhoseorganization,theWajo KenkyuKai,haspublisheddetailedsurveyreportsoverthepastdecade. Unlessotherwiseindicated,all imagesinthisbookarethepropertyof Hehasgenerouslymadetheseavailabletome,andtheyweretoprove theauthor. vitalindirectingmyownfieldworkvisitstothewajositesbetween 1997 and2oo5.AIIthemapsanddiagramshaveappearedintheWajoKenkyu Author's dedication Kai'sjournalWajonoKenkyu.UsingKuroda'smapsandreconstructions Iwasabletolocate,visitandphotographallthemajorsurvivingwajo; ToSueBrayshaw. andalsotostudyfromadistanceothersiteswhereverylittlesurvives toindicatethatanapparentlyundistinguishedhilloncehousedacolonial Artist's note fortressdesignedtoactasamilitaryoutpostofanempirethatneverwas. Readersmaycaretonotethattheoriginal paintingsfromwhichthe A note on Romanization colourplatesinthisbookwerepreparedareavailableforprivatesale. All reproductioncopyrightwhatsoeverisretainedbythepublishers. InthisbookIhaveadoptedthesystemofRomanizationoftheKorean Allenquiriesshould beaddressedto: alphabetthatwasofficiallyintroducedbytheSouthKoreangovernment PeterDennis,ThePar~,Mansfield,NOnS NG182AT in2000.Inessencethenewsystemhasgotridoftheapostropheand e-mail:[email protected] thesemicircularaccent.ConsequentlythewajoofUngch'u6n,asit appearsinSamuraiInvasionisnowwrittenUngcheon.Thishastwo ThePublishersregretthattheycanenterintonocorrespondence advantages:firstbecausesometimestheaccentedmarkwasomitted uponthismatter. altogether,meaningthatdifferentplaceswerewritteninthesameway. Moreimportantisthefactthatsince2002theroadsignsinKorea,all Preface ofwhicharenowwritteninboththeKoreanscriptandtheRomanized alphabet,usethenewsystem.Thesameappliestoall English-language ThesoutherncoastlineoftheRepublicofKoreaisnotedforitsjagged mapsandtouristinformation,soavisitorusingthisbookwillnotget cliffs,itssecludedcovesanditsintricatewaterwaysdottedwithmyriad lost!Onedisadvantageliesinthesadlossofafewnamesmadefamiliar islands.Hereandthere,usuallyonmountaintopsoverlookingsheltered intheKoreanWarsuchasinthereplacementofPusanbyBusan,and harbours,lietheforgotten ruinsofancientfortresses,theirsolidstone K6jedobyGeojedo,butreferencetothemapsenclosedinthisbook wallsovergrownwith ivy.Theseabandonedcastlesarethesolephysical shouldavoidanyconfusion.Asthesechangeshavenotbeenappliedin survivorsofashortbutterriblewarwhenjapansoughttooccupy North KoreaanyreferencestoplacesinNorthKoreahavebeenleftin KoreaasapreliminarytoagrandioseschemetoconquerChina. thefamiliarform.Toaidclarityallaccentshavebeenomittedfrom Tosafeguardtheircommunicationsthejapanesebuiltthesecoastal japanesewordsaswell. Contents Introduction: the very short history of the wajo 4 Design and development 8 The Koreanfortification tradition and itsshortcomings • Adopt,adapt,improve- thefirstJapanesecastles in Korea Thecreationofthewajo Structural and architectural features of the wajo 13 The wajo as a defensive system 19 Safeharboursandsecuremoorings • Policingand defence • Commandersandgarrisons Thewajo's defensivearmaments The wajo from end to end 28 The Busan Harbourdefences • Thewajoonthe Nakdong River • Theeastcoast Ungcheonandthe islands • Thewesternwajo The living site 37 The realm ofthe beasts:buildingthewajo • From prayingto raiding- dailylife inthewajo Watchingthewajo • Thewajoaseconomiccentres Operational history 44 The revelation ofstrength:Busan 1592 • Thevindication:Ungcheon 1593 • The ultimatetest:Ulsan 1598 Thefinished product:Sacheon 1598 • Combined operations:Suncheon 1598 Aftermath 59 Thewajoandthewar'soutcome • Influenceofthewajo onJapanesecastledesign Theinfluenceofthewajo on Korean castledesign The wajo today 62 Bibliography 63 Index 64 Introduction: the very short history of the wajo The invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597, the attempt at occupation between thosetwodatesandthedesperaterearguardactionlatein1598togethermakeup amilitaryoperationuniqueinJapanesehistory.Apartfromnumerouspirateraids onChinaandKorea, someofwhichwereverylargeinscope, andtheannexation ofRyukyu(modernOkinawaprefecture)bytheShimazuclanin1609,theKorean expeditionremainstheonlyoccasionwithinaperiodof1,000yearsduringwhich a thedestructiveenergiesofthesamurai apan'swarriorclass)wereexpendedona foreign country. Japan'sKoreanexpedition- knowntoKoreansastheImjinWar- wasalsothe lastmilitarycampaigntobesetinmotionbyToyotomiHideyoshi(1536-98),and wasto prove adisastrousendtothe glorious militarycareerofabrilliantgeneral who is regardedasJapan'sequivalentofNapoleon Bonaparte. Havingrisenfrom thelowestranksthroughamixtureofskillandopportunisticcunning,Hideyoshi wasadoredbyhissubordinates,whoservedhimwithakeenloyaltytoa'soldiers' general' that transcended the legendary fidelity expected of a samurai. In this Hideyoshi had set them a fine example when he served as the most loyal and talented member of the inner circle of generals underJapan's first unifier, Oda Nobunaga (1534-82). Nobunaga, an earlyenthusiastfor the firearms introduced from Europein 1543, had transformedJapanese warfare, andhadtaken the first steps towards reuniting the country from the patchwork of competing petty daimyo (feudal warlords) whose squabbles had given the age the name of the SengokuJidai, theAgeofWarringStates. When Nobunaga was murdered in 1582, Toyotomi Hideyoshi became his avenger, and by a series of rapid offensives overcame his fellow generals to inherit Nobunaga's former domains. Three massive campaigns followed: the invasionoftheislandofShikokuin1585;theconquestoftheislandofKyushu in 1587; and the defeat of the powerful Hojo family near modern Tokyo in 1590.Withinayearalltheotherdaimyohadsubmittedtohim, sothatby1591 Japanwas reunitedunder the son ofapeasant. The Korean-style pavilion onthe summitofthe hill onwhich 4 Dongnaewajo was built. If Hideyoshi had been content to stop there his place inJapanese history Thewajo ofYangsan asviewed would have been assured. But his campaigns of the 1580s had involved the from the modern bridgeoverthe successful deployment of armies numbered in many tens of thousands and Nakdong River nearthefootofthe their safe transport by sea. By 1591 everything looked possible to him, even hill on whichwas builtthewajo of Hopo.Hoposhared withYangsan the conquest of China, a dream that he had entertained for several years. the defence ofthe Nakdongabove Geography, if nothing else, suggested that to carry out such an outrageous Busan.Yangsan wajowas builtalong scheme - which would have to be aimed at Beijing, the capital of the Ming the ridge ofthetwo prominenthills dynasty- aJapaneseinvasionwouldhavetoproceedviatheKoreanPeninsula. in the middle distance. When the Korean king refused to allow the Japanese unimpeded progress through his countrythe planned Chinesewarbecame a Korean war. TheinvasionofKoreatookplaceinMay1592andinvolvedanuninterrupted crossing of the sea via the islands of Iki and Tsushima. The first shots of the campaign were fired against the fortress guarding the harbour of Busan, a castle that would one day become one of the most importantJapanese wajo. From here the First Division under Konishi Yukinaga proceeded northwards, taking two other future wajo at Dongnae and Yangsan. The Second Division underKatoKiyomasafollowedthemalongthisroute, whileKurodaNagamasa's Third Division landed further to the west across Busan's great natural moat of the Nakdong River and captured Gimhae, another site that was to become a Japanese strongpoint. Arapid advance followed, and within a few days Seoul, the Korean capital, hadfallen to theJapanese. Adelay at the Imjin River allowed the Korean king to escape to the Chinese border, but not long afterwards Konishi Yukinaga occupied Pyongyang, while Kato Kiyomasa setoffonacampaignto pacifythe north-east and to cross into Manchuria. The successful conquest ofKorea was reported back to a satisfied Toyotomi Hideyoshi (who never leftJapan during the entire campaign), and plans were rapidly drawn up for the occupation of Korea, the allocation of territory, the drafting of tax rolls and its inhabitants' incorporation under Hideyoshi's hegemony in much the same way that the Japanese daimyo had submittedto himin 1591. Itwas at that point that the counterattackbegan, and Pyongyang, captured soeasilybyKonishiYukinaga,wasdestinedtobeJapan'slastoutpostontheroad to,China. Three developments were to thwart Hideyoshi's dream of conquest. 5 The first was the activity of Korean guerrillas, who were drawn from the shattered remnants of the army and fought under newly inspired leaders. The secondwastheseriesofnavalvictorieswonbytherenownedAdmiralYiSunsin, whose heavily armed 'turtle ships' destroyed many Japanese vessels and disrupted communications with Japan. The third, and ultimately the most important development, was the intervention ofMing China. In a battle that was to prove the major turning point in the war Pyongyangwas recaptured in February 1593. From this moment ontheJapanese were involved in afighting retreat. By the autumn of 1593 their invading armies had evacuated Korea, leaving behind a handful of garrisons to 'occupy' their remaining toehold on Mapofthesouthern partofSouth Korea's south coast. The fortresses from which this defiant illusion was to be Koreashowingthe locationsofthe wajo 1592-98. maintainedfor the nextfive yearswerethefirst ofthewajo. & Castlesbuiltduringthefirstinvasion,1592-1593 t a Castlesbuiltduringoccupationorsecond • invasion,1593-1598 U Castlesofunknowndate 25miles I 50km GYEONGSANG PROVINCE ..... (" JEOLLA PROVINCE ) / MasaU &Yangsan \ SindapU /"" UHOPO \ Gijang •'. Chinjue \ \ " Sacheon J f \ CS·~ \ \ \ 6 A second invasion of Korea was launched in 1597. The main attacks were Thesiteofthewajo ofUlsantoday, carried out to the west of the existing wajo, and the Japanese armies initially lookingacrossthe riverfrom the enjoyedasimilarsuccessto 1592. Butthistime the reversewas much swifterin south.TheJapanese-stylestone wallsareobscured bythedense coming, and theJapanese were to be on the defensive for most ofthe second foliage.Ulsan markedtheeastern campaign. Adecisiveinterventionfrom ChinasoonforcedtheJapanesebackto endofthe lineandwas incomplete the wajo line, which was extended westwards to Suncheon and eastwards to when attacked bythe Mingin 1598. Ulsan. Ulsan wasJapan's last wajo to be built, and was still unfinished when a Mingarmyattackeditinanepicsiegeearlyin1598.ThreeotherChineseattacks followed later in the year. Two were launched against the wajo ofSacheon and Suncheon while another attempt was made against Ulsan, but before these operations were even under way Toyotomi Hideyoshi died peacefully in his sleep. Thegoverningcouncilwhowereto ruleJapan duringthe minorityofhis son Hideyori decided to make a final withdrawal from Korea, but this did not happen before massive Chinese assaults were beaten off from these three key wajo.AlmostthelastJapanesecontingenttoleaveKoreaturnedouttobetheone underthecommandofKonishiYukinaga, whohadledthefirst assaultin 1592. He first rescued some soldiers and sailors isolated in the wajo of Namhae by Korea's last naval victory at Noryang, and then supervised the evacuation of Busan.ThelastmembersoftheinvadingarmyarrivedbackinJapantohearthe stunningnewsthattheirgreatleaderwas dead. Hideyoshi's dreams ofconquest had died with him, leaving behind a devastated land and a line ofabandoned castlesthatweretobecomethemonumentsofalostempire. 7 Design and development The Korean fortification tradition and its shortcomings Thewajowere castlesbuilt entirelyin theJapanese style, awayofconstructing fortresses- uniquetothatcountry- thatwaslabourintensive, timeconsuming andarchitecturallydemanding.ThedecisiontorejectthesimplernativeKorean style, whichwouldhavebeeneasierand quickerto construct, wasmadebythe invadinggeneralsbasedupon theirexperience oftwoyears ofwarfareinKorea andtheir observations ofthe Koreanfortresses thattheyhad overcome. There was certainly no shortage of examples for them to study, because the landthattheJapaneseinvadedin 1592wasacountryoffortresses. Theyfellinto two categories. Like China and unlikeJapan, Korean towns and cities had walls roundthem. Theseenclosedareaswerecalledeupseong, andsomehadbeenbuilt as a response to the Japanese wako (pirate) raids. Also, many mountaintops sportedisolatedmountaincastlescalledsanseong,writtenusingthesameChinese charactersas theJapaneseyamashiro. It was the latter type of fortification that formed the main plank of the Korean government's defensive plan when the Japanese invasion appeared imminent. When danger threatened the principle was to be 'strengthen the walls and clear the countryside'. It was a curious policy decision that dated from the time ofthe wako and did not mean that the peasants would simply move within the nearest eupseong. Instead they were to head for the distant sanseong.Anyonewhofailedtocomplywouldbeliableforarrestandexecution on the grounds of collaboration with theJapanese. What happened was that because the sanseongwere so far away, when a raid began the peasants buried everything in the nearby hills and waited in their villages for theJapanese to arrive, plunder and depart. Thisbizarresituationhadproducedoneunfortunateoutcomeevenbeforethe war started, because the peasants were so suspicious ofthe sanseongthey failed to respond to commands to repair and maintain them. Men were frequently called out for ten weeks ofwork, but their lack ofskills meant that their efforts began to collapse almost as soon as they left. As a result the neglected and crumbling sanseongbecame even less attractive as a refuge, and when the 1592 invasion began the rapid Japanese advance caught the peasants undefended. Because the Korean army largely abandoned the towns for the sanseong the important population centres were lightly defended, leaving the main communication routes through Korea virtually unprotected. And this time, of course, theJapanese robbers didnotsimplyplunderandwithdraw. This is not to say that the Korean sanseong suffered only from bad workmanship. They also had built-in design faults of which the Koreans themselveswereacutelyaware. The statesmanYuSeongnyonggreatlyadmired the work of Qi Jiguang, the Chinese general who had fought the wako and then gone to be the chief architect of the Great Wall of China. Yu despaired when he compared his own countrymen's pathetic efforts to Qi's magnificent creation for the Mingemperors. Instead ofthinkingaboutthebestlocation of their walls the Korean builders just followed the shape ofthe mountains and mountain paths to create a pastiche of the Great Wall where the turrets were too lowto provide coverfor theirdefenders, whohadto crouchorlie downto move from place to place. There were no proper gun emplacements, the gaps 8 intheparapetwerewideenoughtoletanattackerclimbinwithease,andthere