ISRAEL ITS LIFE AND CULTURE I—II BY JOHS. PEDERSEN PROFESSOR OF SEMITIC PHILOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN GEOFFREY CUMBERLEGE POVL BRANNER OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS COPENHAGEN LONDON FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1926 REPRINTED (PHOTOPRINT) 1946 S. L. MOLLER, COPENHAGEN HIS work was first published in the Danish language in 1920, T and the present edition deviates only on a few points from the original. Here and there the text has been shortened a little, while in other places details have been further elaborated. Most of the alterations are due to the discovery of the Assyrian and Hittite Laws which were made known shortly after the first ap­ pearance of this book, the Hittite Law in particular giving valuable contributions towards our understanding of the formation of Israelitic culture. As an example illustrating Israel’s position in the ancient cultures I have, in an additional note, given a short summary of the marriage laws in the different codes. On the other hand, I have left out a brief survey given in the Danish edition of the treatment of the psychology of Israel, and its relation to the general psychology of peoples as developed during the 19th century. The English translation has been undertaken, in close collaboration with myself, by Mrs. Aslaug Moller, M. A. of the University of Copenhagen, and I take this opportunity of thanking her for her great interest in the work, which has been made all the more difficult, as the character of the subject has sometimes necessitated the finding of expressions which, like their Danish equivalents, may strike the reader as peculiar and perhaps not in strict accordance with the common usus loquendi. For further security it has been revised and the proofs read by Mr. H. Stewart Maclaren. The indices have been compiled by my wife. References to Bible texts apply to the Hebrew edition, and the translations are undertaken direct from the latter, the wording, however, having been kept as close to the Authorized Version as possible, while Hebrew names are generally written as in English. In the transcrip- tion of Hebrew and other Semitic words special signs have only been used wherever absolutely necessary; thus, sh is used for the Hebrew shin, and the fricative pronunciation of the explosive mediae'after vowels is rendered by h (th, ph, etc.). The cost of production of the English edition has been defrayed by the Danish Rask-0rsted Fond, to which institution I wish to express my deep sense of obligation. In the preface to the Danish edition, which was dedicated to my colleague and friend Vilh. Grônbech, I said that I hoped to be able to continue with a work on the Israelitic cult and conception of the Holy. Hitherto I have unfortunately been prevented by other works from carrying out this plan, but I hope that it may prove practicable in a not too distant future. Copenhagen, January, 1926. Johs. P. . '!>' i CONTENTS CANAAN BEFORE THE IMMIGRATION OF THE Page ISRAELITES ...................................................................... 1—11 Archaeology and geography, pp. 1—2. Canaanite peoples, pp.-3—6. Cultural conditions during the Amarna period; the petty kings and their Egyptian Overlord, pp. 6—11. THE MAKING OF ISRAEL. HISTORY AND SOURCES ......................................................................... 12-29 Accounts of the Old Testament partly patriarchal, partly tribal immigrations, pp. 12—13. Historical value of pa­ triarchal legends. Genesis and Book of Joshua only episodes of immigration, showing the conception of a later period; so also the account of the events centring round Mount Sinai, pp. 13—20. Immigration scattered. Nomadic life in Canaan, pp. 20—21. Fusion with Canaanites. Importance of monarchy and the great cities towards transformation of Israel, pp. 21—25. Sources, pp. 26—29. TRIBE AND CITY. SOCIAL ORDER ..................... 29-46 Systematic subdivision of Israel into tribes, families and ' fathers* houses artificial, pp. 29—30. Origin of tribe ir­ regular, through covenants and wanderings; geographical . conditions. Significance vague; leaves no trace in the laws, pp. 30—40. The town and its community. Elders and their authority. New ruling classes. Clients. Labourers and slaves. Hetaeras and fatherless, pp. 34—36. THE FAMILY, THE FATHER’S HOUSE AND THE PEOPLE ............................................................................... 46—60 Tribe, family and father’s house not sharply defined, pp. 46—47. Family defined from a qualitative point of view; * every unity a family, meaning a common life; mishpaha and We ph, pp. 47—50. The father’s house is the family as denoting household, but otherwise identical with family; II Page sometimes denoting totality, pp. 51—54. “The people”, 'an, also of family and other unities, in particular the nation, pp. 54—57. Brother, kinsman and fellow, pp. 57—60. THE FORMATION OF THE FAMILY .................... 60-81 Marriage; husband and wife. The man centre of the house­ hold. pp. 60—64. Choice of wife; forbidden degrees of relationship; importance of marriage, pp. 64—70. Wife helper of husband; polygamy. Motherhood, pp. 70—74. Paternal and maternal kin, pp. 74—77. Levirate marriage, pp. 77—81. THE PROPERTY OF THE FAMILY ........................ 81—96 Property follows the family. Encroachments of monarchy and great cities, pp. 81—83. Lost property to be taken over by the nearest of kin; community of property no rule, pp. 83—85. Attempts to prevent social revolutions, pp. 85—89. Order of inheritance, pp. 89—96. I. THE SOUL, ITS POWERS AND CAPACITY THE SOUL ....................................................................... 99-181 The soul not part of man, but man as a totality with a peculiar stamp. Other souls, pp. 99—100. Sensation and mental image, pp. 100—102. nephesh, riiach and lebh denote the to­ tality with its peculiar stamp; will the central element. Differentiation of the three terms, pp. 102—106. Thought determined by volition, directed towards action, pp. 106—108. To think is to appropriate a totality, pp. 108—109. Concep­ tion a totality manifesting itself in the detail, not closely defined, but determined by character. Capacity of char­ acterization, pp. 109—112. Formation of sentences a forma­ tion of totalities. Nominal and verbal phrases; the latter governing the account. Verb tenseless. Perfect describes action as independent totality; imperfect describes it as preparatory and supplementary, pp. 113—115. Logical context subordination of other totalities. Logical particles denote phrases of collateral circumstances; no distinction made between phrases indicating reason, consequence, cause, simultaneity, further explanation and relative phrases, pp. 115—120. Character of description, pp. 120—123. Striving after totality and movement. Immediate sensation, pp. 123—125. Terms for thinking, pp. 125—126. Thinking practical. Wisdom, p. 127. Mental processes not successive. Action and result implied by the thought. Counsel, pp. 128 Ill Page —131. Responsibility of the man. Perception containing matter. Action manifestation of mental unity, pp. 132—133. Dreams realities, possibly manifestations of action not yet carried into effect. Responsibility for dreams. Joseph, pp. 133—137. Truth of dream depending upon mental force of dreamer, pp. 138—140. Vision analogous with dream. Visions of prophets before the war. Micaiah ben Imlah, pp. 140—145. The soul an organism with centre of force, pp. 145—146. Craving to be filled, pp. 146—149. The soul emptied, de­ stroyed, pp. 149—151. Soul and life. Life tantamount to activity and manifestation, not differing from soul, pp. 151 —156. Transformation of soul, pp. 156—157. Prophets. Ecstatic state and outward manifestations. Visions of prophet and valiant deeds of hero, pp. 157—162. Disruption and sending out of the soul, pp. 162—164. Communication of soul, pp. 165—166. The force of a word dependent upon the contents of the soul, pp. 167—168. “Symbolic” actions and tokens, pp. 169—170. The body outward expression of the soul; its individual parts are the soul. Spirit, heart, blood, bones, bowels, reins, liver, head, eyes, face, pp. 170—176. Flesh and spirit, i. e. weakness and strength; flesh is soul, pp. 176—179. Death a weakening of the soul, pp. 179—180. Relation towards dead bodies, p. 181. THE BLESSING ............................................................. 182—212 b'rakha is the power to live, varying according to the character of the soul, p. 182. Expressed in “counsel”, p. 183. David type of him whose blessing increases, Saul of him who loses the blessing. Their mutual relation, pp. 183—190. The pa­ triarchs bearers of the blessing. Jacob in house of Laban, pp. 190—192. The blessing inherited, communicated to sur­ roundings; pp. 192—193. God is with the blessed, imparts strength to his soul, pp. 194—195. Efficiency and power to succeed, pp. 196—197. Wisdom and understanding, pp. 198—199. The man rich in blessing, barukh, hands down the blessing as the property of his family; it is communicated to his sons, pp. 199—200. To bless is to impart mental power, pp. 200—201. Blessing communicated in gifts and greeting; necessary at meeting and parting; must be mutual, pp. 202—204. Power of blessing propagation; by its means the soul grows, pp. 204—207. The blessing of women, pp. 207—208. Wealth and fertility, pp. 209—211. Success in war and rule, pp. 211—212. IV Page HONOUR AND SHAME .............................................. 213-244 Honour the contents and value of the soul, p. 213. Job’s conception of honour: to be the one who gives and who counsels, pp. 213—216. Gideon and Jephthah: to carry others by counsel and deed. Honour must be fought for, the Bedouins’ ideal of honour. Samson, pp. 216—223. The old idea of honour harmonious. Later a despotic type; Canaanite influence, pp. 223-226. Honour expressed in the body. Clothing, pp. 226—228. Property, p. 228. Honour “weight” of the soul, k&bhodh, strength, hayil, is created by blessing, pp. 228—230. Honour individual. Woman’s honour, pp. 230—232. Lack of chivalry towards women, pp. 232—233. The weaker yields honour to the strong, increases his greatness. Praising. Gifts, pp. 234—236. Terms for honour, pp. 237—238. Honour is soul, pp. 238—239. Shame is defeat, lack of blessing, pp. 239—241. En­ croachment upon the body, pp. 241—242. Humiliation before others, p. 243. Demands for the shaming of the enemy, pp. 243—244. NAME ................................................................................ 245—259 Name the soul with its blessing and honour, p. 245. Name acts, p. 246. To speak and act in one’s name, pp. 246—247. Name is renown, i. e. the achievement of the soul. Achieve­ ment creates name. The tower of Babel, pp. 247—249. Name and property, p. 250. Name pillars, p. 250—252. Giving of name; changing of name, pp. 252—253. The man bears the name of his fathers, pp. 253—254. Progeny identical with name, p. 254. Extermination of name, pp. 255—256. Memory, pp. 256—257. Community of name makes community of soul. Adoption, pp. 257—258. Firstborn the greatest share of name of father, pp. 258—259. Name common property of family, p. 259. II. COMMON LIFE AND ITS LAWS PEACE AND COVENANT .......................................... 263-310 The soul must live in community and share blessing with others. Solitude a misfortune, p. 263. Community and harmony called shaldm, peace, properly speaking totality; community of will. Its dissolution in the great cities, pp. 263 —265. Peace within family. Breach of peace. Family a psychic unity, pp. 265—269. Individual involves “house”, V Page pp. 269—275. Community of town and people, pp. 275—276. Community through the generations. Fathers’ share in fate of successors, pp. 276—278. Covenant of friendship. David and Jonathan; conflict between pact of kin and pact of friendship, pp. 278—284. Relation between shalom and b'SHh, p. 285. Covenant the presupposition of life and action. Excludes conflict; mutual security, pp. 285-287. Union of souls by covenant more or less intimate. Its striving after expansion. Gen. 34, pp. 287—291. Common responsibility of covenanters, p. 292. Covenant not placing parties on equal footing. Right to demand, pp. 293—296. The gift is a communication of soul; necessary between members of same covenant, pp. 296—298. Art of life to give gifts. Abraham, Jacob and Esau, pp. 298—301. Gifts between master and vassal, pp. 301—302. Exchange of weapons and clothes; bodily touch, handshake, kisses, pp. 302—303. To bless each other is to give each other peace. Peace and bles­ sing belong together, pp. 303—304. Making of covenants by hand shaking, kisses, meals, because the covenant manifests itself in these, pp. 304—306. Momentary, separate covenants; can be very intimate, pp. 306—307. Covenant can be deposited into a stone, pp. 307—308. Dissolution of covenant dissolution of common life and the soul; the covenant having its roots in divine forces and being made in holy places; the gods are in the union, pp. 308—309. Creating right and duty. Love the basis of all com­ mon life; feeling of kinship. To love one’s neighbour, pp. 309—310. PEACE AND SALVATION .......................................... 311—335 Peace the entirety of the soul; not contrast of war, but victory, expansion, pp. 311—312. Comprises happiness and harmony with others, pp. 312—314. To be inviolate. Health of the body; long life. Fertility, pp. 314—316. Weight later on attached to unchecked growth, pp. 316— 317. Enemies exterminated or entirely subjected, pp. 317— 320. Demand for security, pp. 320—322. Abolition of war presupposes uncontested rule of Israel, pp. 322—325. Wild beasts are to be made away with or become tame, pp. 325— 326. Rest the ideal; the curse of labour; great profit claimed, pp 326—327. To die in peace. Life of man like life of plant. Peace opposite of fight and strenuous effort, pp. 328—329. VI Page Salvation properly speaking “spaciousness”, expansion: not negative, salvation implies victory, p. 330. To save is to impart strength. The chief the saviour, pp. 330—331. Salvation more momentary than peace; denotes all happi­ ness, contrast of trouble, pp. 332. Transformed to mean unchecked growth; Psalm 91. All evil to be done away with. Abolition of death, pp. 332—334. Salvation never deliverance from corporeal life; earthly happiness, pp. 334 —335. RIGHTEOUSNESS AND TRUTH ............................... 336—377 Righteousness the health of the soul. To be whole, pure, firm, straight means to act in accordance with the essence of the soul, pp. 336—337. Righteousness, sedhek, denotes the normal, implies strength, p. 338. Also truth is the power to main­ tain oneself, pp. 339—340. Presupposes the covenant. Right­ eousness and truth like love maintenance of covenant. Maintenance of self and covenant, power and will in one, pp. 340—342. Claim of justice depends upon position within covenant; demand of the weak for assistance, demand of the strong for honour. Mutual acknowledgment, pp. 342—345. He who does not fulfil the covenant towards the other be­ comes unjust towards him. To justify is to re-establish the covenant and restore to normal conditions, pp. 345—347. To “make true”, i. e. faithful, is to acknowledge the man, pp. 347—348. ' To judge is to maintain the covenant in outward as well as in inward relation, to give to everyone his just claim, pp. 348—349. Whole of life a “judging”, mishpat-, it denotes the kind and habit of the soul, right and duty, the standard of its behaviour, pp. 349—351. Essentially tantamount to sedhek. Constantly to be created in social life, pp. 351—352. Law an expression of rights and duties given with the covenant. Not enforced from without, but identical with character of soul, pp. 352—353. Law of kinship. Respect for the totality of the man. Compassion towards the weak. Clients, pp. 353—358. Justice the force creating blessing. Goodness and hap- jriness of the righteous parallel manifestations of health. “Wholeness” both righteousness and happiness, pp. 358— 359. Righteousness victory; peace and salvation. Fertility, pp. 359—360. Not an abstract claim, but to give and take according to one’s ability and position in the covenant, pp. 360—361. The “way” is the quality and destiny of the soul; me two belong together. Presupposition: the justice of God, pp. 361—362.