Is Cooperative Learning an Appropriate Pedagogy to Support the Four Capacities of Curriculum for Excellence? Clare M McAlister Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Philosophy (R) February 2009 Abstract Cooperative learning is a widely researched pedagogy that has received very positive research results in the USA and Canada. In the last few years this pedagogy has been adopted by a number of schools in Scotland and by one Local Authority as a major area of investment in training. At the same time, a new curriculum, called Curriculum for Excellence, is being introduced in Scotland that will bring significant changes to current practice. Underpinning this new curriculum is the development of the ‘four capacities’ of successful learners, confident individuals, effective contributors and responsible citizens. To achieve the aims of Curriculum for Excellence there will need to be a change in how schools are organised and in the approaches to learning and teaching that take place in our classrooms. This has implications for the continuing professional development (CPD) of teachers as there is a requirement, in the new curriculum, to provide more active learning in the classroom. This thesis has developed from a personal interest in the capacity of cooperative learning to include and engage learners and, therefore, its ability to promote active learning. This thesis argues, through the literature and research data reviewed, and the evidence of the research undertaken as part of this project, that cooperative learning is an effective way to support, and therefore develop, the four capacities of Curriculum for Excellence. Total word count – 54,627 Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge and thank Dr Margery McMahon, my supervisor for this thesis who has been, at all times, excellent, supportive and constructive in her guidance. My thanks go to all participants in this research, for their time and contributions which have proved invaluable. I would like to particularly note Jill Haywood and Michael Moohan for their positive input into my progress. Schools are demanding and complex organisations and the support offered by colleagues and pupils has been excellent. I thank my parents Rose and Tom McAlister and sisters Roseann Regan and Elaine Shaw for their tolerance at my lack of availability. Finally I would like to thank my partner, Sam Harte, for his editing, unfailing support and encouragement. Without the support of all the above this thesis would not have been possible. Contents (i) Title Page List of Tables and Charts iii List of Abbreviations Used in the Text iii Chapter 1 – Introduction 1 1.1 Rationale and Justification 1 1.2 Background 1 1.3 Chapter Introductions 5 1.3.1 Chapter 2 5 1.3.2 Chapter 3 6 1.3.3 Chapter 4 6 1.3.4 Chapter 5 7 1.3.5 Chapter 6 8 Chapter 2 – Approaches to Pedagogy 9 2.1 Background 9 2.1.1 Dominant Influences in the 20th and 21st Centuries 9 2.1.2 Multiple Intelligences 18 2.1.3 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 19 2.2 Background – Cooperative Learning 21 2.3 Cooperative Learning: Review of Literature and Research 22 2.4 Successful Learners 27 2.5 Confident Individuals 31 2.6 Responsible Citizens 32 2.7 Effective Contributors 35 2.8 Conclusion 36 Chapter 3 – Curriculum for Excellence and Good Practice 37 3.1 Drivers 37 3.2 Curriculum Development 38 3.3 Curriculum for Excellence 40 3.4 Development of Curriculum for Excellence 43 3.5 Good Practice 48 3.5.1 Good Practice and HMIe 50 3.6 Perceptions of Learning and Teaching 53 3.7 The Role of Subject Teaching in Developing the Four Capacities 54 3.8 HMIe Examples of Good Curriculum Practice 58 3.9 Ofsted Inspections 63 3.10 Conclusion 64 Chapter 4 – Research Methods 66 4.1 Data Gathering 66 4.2 Background 68 4.3 Methodology 69 4.4 The Impact of Paradigms 71 4.5 Positivist Approaches to Research 73 4.5.1 Positivism as Science 74 4.5.2 Issues with the Positivist Approach 77 4.6 Interpretive Approaches to Research 78 4.6.1 Issues with Interpretive Approaches 80 4.7 Critical Theory and Critical Educational Research 82 (ii) 4.7.1 Criticism of Critical Educational Research 84 4.7.2 Action Research 85 4.8 Validity and Reliability 90 4.8.1 Ethics 92 4.9 Conclusion 95 Chapter 5 – Research Data and Analysis 97 5.1 Context 97 5.1.1 Local Authority 1 97 5.1.2 Local Authority 2 98 5.2 Pilot 100 5.2.1 Pupil Questionnaire 100 5.2.2 Questionnaire Design 101 5.2.3 Group Interview Questions 101 5.2.4 Teacher Group Interview LA1 101 5.2.5 Development Officer LA2 102 5.2.6 Tally Sheets 102 5.3 The Sample 103 5.4 Findings and Analysis 106 5.5 Confident Individuals 107 5.6 Confident Individuals – Pupils 110 5.7 Responsible Citizens 117 5.8 Effective Contributors 122 5.9 Successful Learners 128 5.10 Additional Themes from the Findings 134 5.10.1 Questions About Cooperative Learning 137 5.10.2 Pupils’ Hopes for Future Learning 138 5.11 Tally Sheets 142 5.12 Implications of the Research Findings 145 5.13 Conclusion 148 Chapter 6 – Conclusions 149 6.1 Findings 149 6.1.1 Is Cooperative Learning an Effective Pedagogy? 149 6.1.2 Is Training Necessary to Effectively Implement Cooperative Learning? 149 6.1.3 What Does This Mean for Teachers? 150 6.1.4 Implications of Teacher as Researcher 151 6.2 The Four Capacities 152 6.2.1 Successful Learners 152 6.2.2 Confident Individuals 152 6.2.3 Responsible Citizens 153 6.2.4 Effective Contributors 154 6.3 Good Practice 154 6.4 Effectiveness of the Methodology 155 6.5 Implications of this Research 156 6.6 The Future 157 6.7 Is Cooperative Learning an Appropriate Pedagogy to Support the Four Capacities of Curriculum for Excellence? 157 (iii) References 159 Bibliography 168 Appendices 1 Pupil Questionnaire 172 2 Pupil Group Interview Questions 175 3 Staff Group Interview Questions 176 4 Local Authority 2 Development Officer Questions 177 5 Tally Sheet 178 6 Ethical Approval 179 7 Consent Form (Pupil and Staff) 180 8 Plain Language Statement 181 9 Letter to LA2 184 10 Letter to LA1 185 List of Table and Charts Table 1 Research Questions 8 Table 2 Purposes of the 3-18 Curriculum 23 Table 3 Good Practice 58 Table 4 Data Gathering 67 Table 5 Timescale for Gathering Research Data 100 Table and Chart 5.1 I feel confident in class when 112 Table and Chart 5.2 I lack confidence in class when 115 Table and Chart 5.3 I show responsibility in my class by 119 Table and Chart 5.4 I contribute effectively to my group by 125 Table and Chart 5.5 I learn best 130 Table and Chart 5.6 The activities I most enjoy in the classroom are 134 Table and Chart 5.7 I prefer when my teacher 137 Table and Chart 5.8 What do you understand by the term cooperative learning? 138 Table and Chart 5.9 I would like more cooperative activities in the classroom because 139 Table and Chart 5.10 I would like less cooperative activities in the classroom because 141 Table 5.11 Tally sheets 143 List of Abbreviations Used in the Text CPD Continuing Professional Development HMIe Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Education LA1 Local Authority 1 LA2 Local Authority 2 LTS Learning and Teaching Scotland Ofsted The Office for Standards in Education SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Subjects 1 Chapter 1 - Introduction Jerome Bruner wrote “The single most characteristic thing about human beings is that they learn” (1967: 113). How learning takes place has been of interest to educational and psychological theorists and practitioners since the birth of their disciplines. This thesis will explore how effective a learning and teaching approach is in supporting the four capacities of the new curriculum in Scotland the Curriculum for Excellence. Chapter one of this thesis provides the rationale and justification for focussing this research on cooperative learning. The rest of this introduction Chapter provides a guide to the thesis. 1.1 – Rationale and Justification The topic of this thesis is timely and has the potential to alter how learning and teaching takes place in schools. In the Chapters that follow it will become clear that cooperative learning is a well researched pedagogy that has been shown to have a positive impact in a number of areas. In Scotland the education system is in transition as we move towards a curriculum that requires more pupil engagement and interaction. This research attempts to clarify in what ways a pedagogy can support our new curriculum. Although, to some, the links between Curriculum for Excellence and cooperative learning may seem obvious, this is not the general case and many practitioners are unaware of this pedagogy. There has been no formal research completed in Scotland about that relationship and this thesis aims to bridge the gap. This thesis provides evidence that cooperative learning does support the four capacities of Curriculum for Excellence. 1.2 - Background This thesis is the result of a period of transition and learning in my own career that began over five years ago. In 2003, after 10 years of teaching and 5 years running a department, I 2 became seriously disillusioned with education. This disillusionment was the result of my changing perspective on what the role of education, the learner and the teacher should be. Having now been exposed to literature on educational research and theory (Brookfield, 1995; McNiff with Whitehead, 2002; Pollard et al, 2002; Schon, 2006 edition), I regard this as a time when I was engaging with reflection on my practice and with education in the broader sense. Reflection had always been a part of my practice however the difference now was that my reflection was linking the theories that underpinned my practice and provided greater depth to my reflection. Significantly, at this point in my career, I secured a two year secondment to the University of Glasgow, Faculty of Education, where I had the opportunity to engage with alternative ideas and challenge my own perceptions of what the purpose of education should be. During the secondment I was exposed to literature on active learning pedagogies. Through reviewing relevant literature, I became aware that the purpose of education should always include learning that enables young people to participate fully and actively in society. Today we require workers who are adaptable, flexible and can work in teams and the education we provide should support this. Schools are complex organisations and it is understandable why so many are rule governed and traditional in approach. The term traditional approach to education refers to didactic, teacher led lessons. Traditional approaches to learning and teaching and rule governed behaviour, was the personal school experience of many of today’s practitioners. This has an impact on how practitioners regard and facilitate learning and teaching in the classroom. Education in schools is unique due to the demands that are constantly placed on teachers and a system that is regarded as supporting those demands is valued. Traditions in schools are strong and teachers value the confidence they experience in tried and tested methods. 3 Practice based expertise is respected. One of the main personal benefits of secondment was the opportunity to explore the theoretical perspectives that supported my practice and to question the benefits to learning that these could offer. The two years at the University promoted a period of rapid personal professional development and growth. I realised quickly that I had crossed a boundary in that I had moved from teacher to teacher educator. This highlighted the fluidity of teaching as the skills and techniques of a teacher can be translated to different situations and this stimulated my own development. I was forced to challenge my own perceptions of professionalism and what that entailed (Forde et al: 2006). Teachers in the 21st Century are required to enhance their professionalism through continuing professional development (CPD) and I now had a role in delivering CPD to qualified teachers and teaching students whilst ensuring my own professional development. My own CPD through this period evolved to a position of teacher as researcher as I became increasingly interested in an alternative learning and teaching approach. One of my roles in the University was as an associate tutor to students in their second year of study on the Bachelor of Education degree programme. It was while undertaking placement visits that I saw a new (to me) approach to learning and teaching in operation. I was impressed by the ease and ability of pupils to take on different ‘roles’ in the classroom, the quality of the interaction taking place and the collaboration in group tasks. This was not a pedagogy I was familiar with, I learned this was ‘cooperative learning’ and I was fortunate enough to receive training in it myself at that time. The students I had visited were on placement in a Local Authority that was offering training to all staff in this pedagogy and many students were supported in this by the classroom teacher. At this time I received one day’s training in cooperative learning at the University of Glasgow and later I was able to attend full training with that Local Authority. 4 In cooperative learning pedagogies I could see the seeds of something I thought so desperately missing in education: here was a pedagogy that would enhance learning through engagement with peers, provide active learning strategies that could be easily implemented in the classroom, develop teamwork and enhance social skills (Johnson & Johnson, 1994; Johnson et al, 1990; Johnson et al, 1994). Albert Bandura (1963) would support teaching social skills in schools rather than hoping that these would simply develop in young people. Cooperative learning appeared to support a more rounded education than did traditional classroom practice and provide the opportunity to develop essential life skills. Spencer Kagan (1994) would argue it takes some time to become skilled in cooperative learning pedagogies and through my experience I would agree. However, as I was assisting in the training of Geography teaching students on the Post Graduate Diploma in Education programme some basic training on cooperative learning was presented to them. On observed visits following this training the use of ‘roles’ in group tasks and the shared responsibility (Johnson & Johnson, 1994; Kagan, ibid; Slavin, 1995) of producing a final result seemed to work well. Cooperative learning strategies were putting the learner at the centre, a practice many teachers employ, but with a more direct focus. The focus shifted from what the teacher said to what the learners were engaged in. For some young people learning can be very passive when traditional learning and teaching approaches are engaged. I have however been impressed at the potential means of engaging young people in a classroom through cooperative learning strategies. Through my research and training in cooperative learning pedagogies it became apparent that this would blend well with formative assessment techniques which are a significant feature of learning and teaching approaches in our schools (Black et al, 2006; Black et al,