I R QBAL EVIEW Journal of the Iqbal Academy, Pakistan April 1989 Editor Mirza Muhammad Munawwar IQBAL ACADEMY PAKISTAN Title : Iqbal Review (April 1989) Editor : Mirza Muhammad Munawwar Publisher : Iqbal Academy Pakistan City : Lahore Year : 1989 Classification (DDC) : 105 Classification (IAP) : 8U1.66V12 Pages : 131 Size : 14.5 x 24.5 cm ISSN : 0021-0773 Subjects : Iqbal Studies : Philosophy : Research IQBAL CYBER LIBRARY (www.iqbalcyberlibrary.net) Iqbal Academy Pakistan (www.iap.gov.pk) 6th Floor Aiwan-e-Iqbal Complex, Egerton Road, Lahore. Table of Contents Volume: 30 Iqbal Review: April 1989 Number: 1 1. FROM POEM TO NARRATIVE IN SUFISM ..................................................................... 4 2. ALLAMA IQBAL'S INTEREST IN THE SCIENCES ..................................................... 24 3. IQBAL'S DOCTORAL THESIS ............................................................................................. 36 4. IQBAL'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE REAWAKENING OF THE MUSLIM WORLD ........................................................................................................................................ 41 5. WAS IQBAL AN EPISTEMOLOGIST? .............................................................................. 46 6. CREATIVE WRITING AND ISLAMIC SOCIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS: 63 7. THE QURANIC METHODOLOGY FOR GNOSIS OR MARIFAH ......................... 76 8. ALLAMA IQBAL IN 50 VOLUMES OF THE 'ISLAMIC CULTURE' ....................... 88 9. EVOLUTION OF PHILOSOPHICAL ACTIVITY IN PAKISTAN .......................... 107 10. OBITUARY OF SAYYID GHULAM RAZA SAEEDI .................................................. 131 FROM POEM TO NARRATIVE IN SUFISM Seyyed Hossein Nasr There is an inward link between meaning and the form which conveys and transmits that meaning, between what classical Sufi terminology, especially as used by Jalal al-Din Rumi, calls ma'nā (meaning) and surah (form).1 This truth is especially true of Sufism itself which is concerned by nature with ultimate meaning, with that is most inward and hidden from the outward seeking eye. That is why from the beginning, the masters of Sufism selected carefully the forms which would be used to express the truths of Sufism and to become the vehicle for realities which these forms could reveal, while these vehicles were by definition confined to the world of outward forms that cannot but be a veil in itself. The Sufis also selected those forms which could be transformed and become transparent so as to be appropriate means for the expression of that meaning, which is none other than the message of inwardness. They chose forms which could become wed to that message in such a way as to lead to the abode of the inward. To this end some chose plastic forms, others musical melodies and yet some remained silent and alluded to the inner truths which they wished to convey through their very presence. Many, however, chose the medium of the spoken and written word and it is to this form of expression that we wish to turn while not forgetting that Sufism has had no verbal forms of expression of the greatest significance varying from calligraphy to sacred music and dance ('samā'), not to speak of that silent music heard only by the wise. Being the inner dimension of the Islamic revelation, Sufism is related in both form and content to the Noble Quran, and the language of the Sacred Text, its rhythms and rhymes, its metaphors and symbols, have continued to echo in Sufi literature throughout the centuries. The Quran is not poetry in tilt ordinary sense of the word; yet it is supreme poetry with its definite metres and prosody. It is not a systematic exposition of metaphysics; yet it contains all metaphysics and wisdom in condensed formulas and aphorisms such as the first shahādah itself, Lā ilāha illa'Llāhi (there is no divinity but Allah). Although brief outwardly, the Quranic formulations possess an, unfathomable depth in their inner dimension leading to the Infinite Reality 1 See S.H. Nasr, Islamic Art and Spirituality, Albany (NY) and London, 1986, pp. 128ff. from which the Quran has originated. The first commentary upon the Quran which is the Hadith, although very distinct in style from the Word of God, remains faithful in its poetic qualities, the use of aphorisms and symbolic imagery to the Divine Word. This is particularly true of the sacred hadīths (al-ahādīth al-qud-siyyah) which are so essential to the genesis and later development of Sufi literature2. How often have Sufis spoken of the hidden treasure (al-kanz al-makhfiy) following the sacred hadith in which this symbol is cited;3 or how often have the Sufis repeated the prophetic utterance, "I am Ahmad without mim (m); I am Arab without 'ayn ('.). He who has seen me has seen the Lord,"4 expounding its inner significance! Sufi literature is deeply rooted in the Noble Quran and Hadīth for its content as well as form5. It is therefore not surprising that the earliest literary 2 On these hadiths see W. Graham, Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam, The Hague, 1975. 3 The well-known Hadith which explain the reason for the creation of the world from the Islamic point of view is as follows: "I was a hidden treasure (kanzun makhfiyyun); I wanted to be known. Therefore, I created the world so that I would be known." It is, therefore, referred to in the Sufi tradition as the hadith of the hidden treasure" (or Kanzi-i-makhfiy in Persian). 4 This hadith refers to the inner reality of the Prophet symbolized by his name Ahmad which without "m" becomes ahad or the One as 'arab without 'ayn becomes rabb or the Lord. It also refers to the fact that no one can reach God without the aid of His Prophet. On the significance of the Prophet in Sufism see T. Burckhardt, Introduction to Sufi Doctrine, trans. D.M. Matheson, Wellingborough, 1976, chapter twelve; F.' Schuon, Understanding Islam, trans. D.M. Matheson, London 1979, chapter 3; al-Jili, University Man, trans. T. Burckhardt, Sherborne, 1983; and A.M. Schimmel, And Muhammad is His Messenger, Chapel Hill and London, 1985. This last work is devoted to the image of the Prophet as reflected in Sufi literature. See also J. Nurbakhsh, Traditions of the Prophet -- Ahadith, London, 1981, which contains those hadiths that have been especially important in the development of Sufism. 5 This does not mean, however, that Sufism derives from the Shari'ah. Rather both the Shari'ah and Sufism or the Tariqah derive from the Truth or Haqiqah which is the origin of Islam in both its exoteric and esoteric aspects. Moreover, Sufism, being Islamic esoterism, assumes the acceptance and practice of the Shareah on behlaf of its followers. See F. Schuon, Understanding Islam, pp. 41-42; S.H. Nasr, Ideals and Realities of Islam London, 1988 chapter V; and Mir Valiuddin, The Quranic Sufism, Delhi, 1977. In a series of work dealing with the relation of the language of Sufism to that of the Quran, Massignon and following him P. Nwyia have clarified that intimate link between Sufism and the Quran not only in meaning expressions of Sufism are in the form of aphorisms and short mystic utterances soon to be followed by poetry. The first example of these utterances are to be found in the Nahj al-bālaglzah of 'Alī ibn Abī Tālib. This pivotal work which is devoted to divine knowledge as well as piety, ethics and even political instructions, was assembled in the 4th/10th century by Sayyid Sharif Radī, but contains the sayings of the man who was the representative par excellence, after the Prophet, (peace be upon him) of that reality which came to be known later as Sufism. The Nahj al-balāghah does also contain longer discourses on metaphysical questions similar to some of the longer hadīths of the Prophet (peace be upon him). The famous discourse of 'Alī on the Oneness of God during the Battle of the Camel comes to mind as a famous example,6 but much of the Nahj al-balāghah is in the form of short aphorisms which became the norm in so much of the early Sufi literature from Hasan al-Basrī to Bāyazīd, from Dhu'l-Nūn al-Misrī to Junayd.7 Early Sufi writings associated with such patriarchs of Islamic spirituality as ‘Ali or his grandson Zayn al-'Abidin al-Sajjād, the author of al-Sahffat al- Sajjādiyyah are also replete with supplications and prayers which have become part and parcel of Muslim devotional literature in general but are also of special significance as early Sufi literature. Such prayers as du'ā'al-sabāh (the Supplication for the Morning) and du‘ā’al-Kumayl (the Supplication of Kumayl ibn Ziyād) attributed to ‘Ali are among the most moving of these early works composed usually in rhymed prose (sap) and reflecting the profound influence of the Quranic revelation in both its content and form. The opening verses of the Supplication of the Morning,8 "Oh God, Oh He Who extended the morning's tongue in the speech of its dawning, dispatched the fragments of the dark night into the gloom of its stammering made firm the structure of the turning spheres in the but also in formal expression. See L. Massignon, Essai sur les origins du lexique technique de la mystique Musulmane, Paris, 1954; and P. Nwyia, Exegese Coranique et langage mystique, Beirut 1970. 6 For the translation of this discourse which begins with 'Ali's answer to the bediun who had asked "0 Commander of the Faithful! Sayest thou that God is one?" See W.Chittick, A Shi'ite Anthology, Albany (NY), 1981, pp. 37-38. 7 It must not be forgotten that the sayings and writings of 'Ali and other early Shi'ite Imams are also part of Sufi literature. The Imams up to the eighth, 'Ali al-Riga, were also poles'of Sufism and appear in the silsilah or chain of various Sufi orders. 8 See Amir al-mu'minin, Supplications (Du 'a), trans. W.Chittick, London, n.d., p.6. measures of its display and beamed forth the brightness of the sun through the light of its blazing!" creates an atmosphere of poetic beauty which was to characterize Sufi literature over the centuries. This trait is to be seen in its most sublime form in the Sahīfah which for this reason came to be known as the "Psalm of the Family of the Prophet (peace be upon him)" and its supplications came to be read and chanted by Sufis and non Sufis alike over the centuries.9 The early hagiographies and compilations dealing with Sufism are replete with the aphorisms, prayers and poetry of the early Sufi sages. Some of these aphorisms contain hidden meanings whose outward form appears as outrageous. They are considered as ecstatic utterances or theophanic locutions (Math) such as Bāyazīd "Glory be unto me" (subhānī) rather than the usual Muslim formula, subhān Allah "Glory be unto God" or "I am the Truth" (ana'1-Haqq) of Hallaj which was to cost him his life10. Others point to profound metaphysical or practical truths without possessing a paradoxical form or being uttered in order to shock the adept from his slumber of forgetfulness such as the famous saying of Junayd, "The cup takes the color of the wine" or that of early 1st/7th century patriarch of Sufism Hasan al- Basri, "Be with this world as if you had never been there, and with the other world as if you would never leave it."11 This type of Sufi literature was to continue through the centuries and lead to some of the most influential and popular works of Sufism especially in Arabic. One need only recall the Mawāqif of the 4th/10th century Sufi al- 9 See the Psalm of Islam, trans. W. Chittick, London, 1988. 10 On these utterances see C. Ernst, Words of Ecstasy, Albany (NY), 1285; also H. Ritter, Die Ausspruche des Bayezid Bistami," Westostliche Abhandlungen, Festschrift fur Rudolf Tschudi, ed. F. Meier, Wiesbaden, 1954, pp.231-243. As for Hallaj, the Sufi tradition has seen this assertion not as a heretical utterance but as the sign of perfect tawhid or unity for it was not the individual soul of Hallaj but the Divine within him who uttered ana'l-Haqq. On Hallaj and the considerable influence he was to exercise on later Sufi literature, see L. Massignon, The Passion of al-Hallaj trans. H. Mason, 4 vols., Princeton, 1982. Ecstatic sayings such as those of Hallaj were assembled by many later Sufis, the most famous compilation and commentary being that of the great saint of Shiraz, Ruzbihan Baqli who wrote the Sharh-i shathiyyat edited by H. Corbin as Commentaire sur les paradoxes des soufis, Tehran, Paris, 1966. On this remarkable expositor of Divine Love and Beauty see H.Corbin, En Islam Iranian, vol. 3, Paris, 1972, pp.20ff. 11 See A.M. Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, Chapel Hill (N.C.), 1975, p.30. Niffarī, that unique work in which God commands al-Niffarī and addresses him in short aphorisms of great poignancy and power, for example, "The knower seeks proofs of Me, and every proof merely points to himself, not to Me: the gnostic seeks proofs through Me"12. Or "Write down who thou art, that thou mayest know who thou art: for if thou knowest not who thou art, thou art not of the people of My gnosis"13. This type of literature in a sense reached its peak, at least in the Arabic language, with the 7th/13th century Sufi Ibn‘Atā-'allah al-Iskandari whose Hikam or Aphorisms continue to be read and chanted throughout the Arabic speaking world to this day while the Malay translation of this work is among the most important in the annals of Malay literature. Such sayings as, "That which shows you the existence of His Omnipotence is that He veiled you from Himself by what has no existence along-side of Him"14 have become proverbial even among the general public beyond the world of the disciples of various Sufi orders. As for supplications and prayers written usually in a highly poetic form, they too become the progenator of a long tradition and over the centuries numerous masterpieces of Sufi literature have appeared in this form. One need only recall the Munājāt or Supplications of the 5th/11th century patron saint of Herat, Khawājah‘Abd-Allāh Ansārī which is among the supreme masterpieces of poetic prose in the Persian language. When the Pir of Herat, as he is known in the Persian speaking world, says, "0 God, Thou madest Creation gratis, Thou provided sustenance gratis, Have mercy on us gratis, Thou art God not a merchant"15 he gives expression to both certain aspects of the attitudes inculcated in the Sufi path and at the same time the deepest yearning of the human soul for God. That is why this work and those of a similar nature such as the prayer of Ibn Mashīsh16 are also re-cited by ordinary pious Muslims, while their most inward meaning is preserved for those who march upon the path of inwardness. The wedding of the truth of the meaning (ma'nā) of Sufism and poetic 12 al-Niffari, the Mawaqif and Mukhatabat, trans. A.J. Arberry, London, 1978, p. 47. 13 ibid., p. 48. 14 See Ibn 'Ata'illah, The Book of Wisdom, trans. V.Danner, New York, 1978, p. 49. 15 See Khwaja Abdullah Ansari, Intimate conversation, New York, 1978, p. 208. 16 See T. Burckhardt, Mirror of the Intellect, trans. and ed. W. Stoddart, Albany (NY), 1987, pp.183-192. form which again derives from the inspiration provided by the Quran, begins in the Arab world with the 2nd/8th century woman Sufi saint who lived in Basra as disciple of Hasan al-Basri and was buried in Jerusalem, Rābi'at al- ‘Adawiyyah. Rābi'ah lived the life of an ascetic much like her mentor but the love of God (al-mahabbah) which follows upon the wake of the fear of God (al-nzakhāfah), gushed forth in her being, creating a poetry whose form suited perfectly the yearning and love for the Divine Beloved. Rābi'ah distinguished carefully selfish love from Divine Love so she sang, "I have loved Thee with two loves, a selfish love and a love that is worthy of Thee. As for the love which is selfish, therein I occupy myslef with Thee, to the exclusion of all others. But in the love which is worthy of Thee, Thou dost raise the veil that I may see Thee. Yet is the praise not mine in this or that, But the praise is to Thee in both that or this."17 This poetry which acts as the vehicle for the expression of human love for the Divine became part and parcel of Sufi literature. The verses of Rābi'ah are chanted to this day and were followed by poems of great quality emanating from the Baghdad School in the 3rd/9th century, especially the moving poems of Abu‘l-Hussyn al-Nūrī who also wrote symbolic prose works of which the most striking is on the seven interior castles of the soul18. The greatest early master of Arabic Sufi poetry is, however, the Persian Mansur al-Hallāj whose Kitab al-tawā-sīn and Dīwān 19 represent the first peak of early Sufi poetry in Arabic. One sees in Hallaj the manifestation of the dimension of illuminative knowledge or gnosis (al-ma'rifah) in addition to love in poems of incredible power and directness as for example when he says, "I saw my Lord with my heart's eye 17 M.Smith, The Way of the Mystics, New York, 1978, p 223. 18 Recent scholarship has related this symbolic imagery of Nuri along with that of other Sufis to the well known work of St.Theresa of Avila. See L. Lopez-Baralt, "Santa Teresa de Jesus Y el Islam," Teresianum, vol. XXXIII, 1982-I/II, pp.629-678. 19 Both edited and studied by L. Massignon. See Kitab altawa-sin, ed. L. Massignon, Paris, 1913; and Le Diwan dAl-Hallaj, Paris, 1955. And I said to Him" Who art Thou" and He said Thou"20 Henceforth poetry became the most intimate vessel for the expression of the truths of Sufism, of states and stations too subtle to be expressed in ordinary prose or the language of everyday life. It was not, however, until the 7th/ 13th century that Arabic Sufi poetry reached its supreme perfection with 'Umar ibn al - Fārid and Muhyī-al-Dīn ibn'Arabī while during the centuries separating Hallāj from these great masters, it was not Arabic but Persian poetry which flowered to reach unprecedented realms of perfection of expression and subtlety of meaning. With Ibn‘Arabī and Ibnal - Fārid the form of Arabic poetry becomes a perfect vehicle for the expression of the most subtle teachings of Sufism. Ibn'Arabi, who was the great expositor of Sufi gnosis, also composed a vast amount of poetry interspersed within his prose works, particularly in al- Futūhāt-al-makkiyyah, not to speak of his Dīwān and the Tarjumān-al-ashwāq. In this last work especially, a highly elaborate language of symbolism expresses for those who possess the correct perception the mysteries of divine union veiled in the imagery of human love. "Greeting to Salma and to those who dwell in the presence, for it behoves one who loves tenderly like me to give greeting. And what harm to her if she gave me a greeting in return?But fair women are subject no authority."21 With Ibn al - Fārid Arabic poetic expression reaches its peaks as far as mystical themes are concerned. Such a work as the Khamriyyah exemplifies the perfect wedding between meaning and form in which the very sounds and images of the poem in the original Arabic seem flow and lead back to the world of the Spirit, the experience of which is symbolized by wine, an experience which is none other than realized knowledge of the divine realities (haqa'iq). The poem begins with these celebrated verses. "Remembering the beloved, wine we drink 20 This is translated somewhat differently by H. Mason in his rendition of Massignon's' The Passion of al-Hallaj - Mystic and Martyr of Islam, vol.3, _p. 301. See pp. 278ff. of this work for a discussion of Hallaj's poetic works. 21 The Tarjuman al-ashwaq, trans. R.A Nicholson, Wheaton (ILL.), 1978, pp. 56-57. Here Salm, according to Ibn 'Arabi's own commentary, symbolises a state of ecstasy which descended upon him from the station Solomon. As for the second verse, it refers to the fact that God is infinite freedom and does nothing by coersion and constraint.