Investigati o n o f A n tibacter ia l P r operties dur in g H a rden in g o f D e n t a l C e ments Xiyu a n Ji a n g Degr e e p r oje c t i n a p pli e d b i o technolo g y , M a st e r o f S c ien c e ( 2 y e ar s ) , 2 0 11 Examensarbe t e i t i l l ämp a d b i o tekn i k 3 0 h p t i l l m a sterexame n , 2 0 11 Biolo g y E d ucati o n C e nt r e a n d B io lo g y E d ucati o n C e nt r e a n d D e partme n t o f E n gineeri n g S c iences, Upps a l a U n iversi t y , U p ps a l a U n iversity Superviso r : H å k a n E n gqvist Contents Summary ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 2 1. Introduction ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 3 1.1. The formation of dental plaque ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 3 1.2. Dental cements studied in investigation ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 4 1.3. Effects on antibacterial properties of dental cements ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 6 1.4. Popular assays for evaluating antibacterial properties of dental cements ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 6 1.5. Aim of the study ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 7 2. Materials and methods ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 8 2.1. Specimens preparation ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 8 2.2. Bacterial strain and growth conditions ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 9 2.3. Agar diffusion test ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 9 2.4. Resazurin test ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 9 2.5. Antibacterial effects of pH∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 10 2.6. Antibacterial effects of fluoride ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 10 2.7. Statistical analysis ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 11 3. Results ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 12 3.1. Antibacterial properties of six dental cements ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 12 3.2. Antibacterial effects of pH∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 15 3.3. Antibacterial effects of fluoride ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 17 4. Discussion ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 18 5. Acknowledgement ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 21 6. References ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 22 1 Summary Secondary caries is a major cause of revision and replacements of dental materials. There are several species of bacteria which are involved in the formation of secondary caries, where Streptococcus mutans is one of the most frequent. Thus, it is quite practical to evaluate the effect on antibacterial activity of dental cements using Streptococcus mutans. In this investigation, six different dental cements were evaluated: RelyXTM Unicem self‐adhesive universal resin cement, KetacTM Cem AplicapTM glass ionomer luting cement, Harvard zinc phosphate cement, Ceramir® Crown & Bridge, Calcium Aluminate and Glass Ionomer cement. Agar Diffusion Test (ADT) and Resazurin Test were used in this study to evaluate the degree of antibacterial properties of the dental cements. Compared with the control group, the Calcium Aluminate and Ceramir cements demonstrated strongest antibacterial properties in a long period time with the resazurin test (P ≤ 0.05), while the Glass Ionomer Cement exhibited no antibacterial properties. Zinc phosphate and RelyX Unicem show little antibacterial properties. In the agar diffusion test, no antibacterial activity was observed for any of the tested cements, and resazurin test may be a more suitable test than agar diffusion test to evaluate antibacterial properties of dental cements. The antibacterial properties of dental materials may be attributed to the pH during setting and after maturation, and release of ions, such as fluoride ions. During this study, antibacterial effects of different pH and different concentration of fluoride were also investigated. The changing of pH value during and after setting of dental cements and the release of fluoride ions from cements contribute to the antibacterial properties, and these effects are used to try to explain antibacterial properties of each dental material. 2 1. Introduction Prosthetic dentistry is the dental specialty including restoration or replacement of teeth, such as crowns, bridges and dentures. Due to the rapidly growing amount of elderly people in the world, prosthetic dentistry is increasing in importance. Thus dental cements are widely used in dental and orthodontic applications to cement materials and obtain a functional unit in the mouth. For ideal dental cements, several properties are desired, such as low solubility, low viscosity, high bond strength to various dental materials, high compressive and tensile strength, anticariogenic activity, etc (1). The present dental cements originate from resins, hybrids and the ceramic classes of materials. One main design difficulty with dental cements is their environment as a bond between two rigid materials or one prosthetic material and dentine. A bond should last for many years under high loads, moist and attacked by bacteria. 1.1. The formation of dental plaque The bacterial pressure in the oral cavity is high and the risk of plaque formation and subsequent caries is constantly a risk for patients. With dental treatments, secondary caries is a major cause of revision and replacements of dental materials. The environment of the oral cavity is quite complicated, and there are numerous species of micro‐organisms that co‐exist in the oral cavity, which provides a condition for micro‐organisms to survive and proliferate (2). The bacteria in the oral cavity are involved in the development of many oral diseases such as demineralization process of marginal enamel and dentin and secondary caries (3). Secondary caries is one of the most important factors to affect the longevity of dental cements (4). There are several species of bacteria isolated from dental plaque, such as Lactobacilli, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus sobrinus, etc (5), which may induce the formation of secondary caries. Streptococcus mutans is one of the most frequent bacteria involved in dental caries (4). These cariogenic bacteria could degrade fermentable carbohydrates to acids to demineralise tooth tissue (6). Thus, it is quite practical to evaluate the antibacterial activity of dental cements with these bacteria, and the ability of dental cements to inhibit the formation of secondary caries (4). In general the starting points for bacterial colonization are irregularities on dental surfaces. These irregular surfaces give high resistance to shear forces and bacteria can proliferate (2). After placement of a dental material on or in a tooth, depending on application there is always a risk of microleakage to occur between material and tooth substance. This is a common clinical phenomenon and happens more or less with all materials (6). For instance, the polymerization shrinkage of dental cements based on resins during hardening may lead to gap formation between the tooth‐cement interface, and oral fluids, ions, some molecules and bacteria could penetrate into this gap (6) (7). The gaps between the material and teeth are easy for 3 oral micro‐organisms to colonize and the shortage of mechanical disturbance and oxygen favors the growth of anaerobic Streptococcus mutans (8). Then dental plaque is formed, and followed by secondary caries. Thus antibacterial properties may be a very important characteristic of dental cement. 1.2. Dental cements studied in investigation There are several different cements used in the clinical practice such as resins, glass ionomers, zinc phosphates, ceramics, and hybrids. In this investigation, antibacterial properties of 6 different dental cements has been evaluated; RelyXTM Unicem self‐adhesive universal resin cement (manufactured by 3M ESPE), KetacTM Cem AplicapTM glass ionomer luting cement (manufactured by 3M ESPE), Harvard zinc phosphate cement (manufactured by HARVARD Dental International GmbH), Ceramir® Crown & Bridge (manufactured by Doxa Dental AB), Calcium Aluminate and Glass Ionomer cement (supplied by Doxa Dental AB), see Table 1. 4 Table 1. Compositions of all the dental cements used in this investigation Powder Liquid Type Supplier P/L ratio1 RelyXTM Unicem Alkaline fillers, Methacrylate Resin 3M ESPE In (RelyX) silanated fillers, monomers cement capsules initiator containing components, phosphoric acid pigments groups, methacrylate monomers, initiator components, stabilizers KetacTM Cem Glass powder, Polycarboxylic acid, Glass 3M ESPE In AplicapTM pigments tartaric acid, water, ionomer capsules (Ketac) conservation agents Harvard zinc Zinc oxide, o‐phosphoric acid Zinc Harvard 3/2 phosphate magnesium phosphate Cement cement oxide (Zinc) Ceramir® Crown Calcium Water, accelerators BioCeramic Doxa 3.2/1 & Bridge aluminate, Dental (Ceramir) strontium fluoride, polyacrylic acid, tartaric acid, strontium alumino fluoride glass Calcium Calcium Water, accelerators BioCeramic Doxa 2.5/1 Aluminate Aluminate Dental (CA) Glass Ionomer Poly acrylic Water Glass Doxa 3.2/1 cement acid, tartaric ionomer Dental (GIC) acid, strontium alumino fluoride glass, strontium fluoride 1P/L ratio stands for the ratio of power and liquid when mixing. 5 1.3. Effects on antibacterial properties of dental cements The antibacterial properties of dental materials may be attributed to the pH during setting and after maturation and release of ions, such as fluoride ions (6). Fluoride is well known as an anticariogenic agent used in drinking water and a variety of other vehicles, and there are several mechanisms involved in this effect, such as reduction of demineralization, enhancement of remineralization, and inhibition of microbial growth and metabolism (9). Fluoride can influence the metabolism of bacteria in oral cavity in multiple ways (10). 1.4. Popular assays for evaluating antibacterial properties of dental cements The agar diffusion test (ADT) and direct contact test (DCT) are two popular assays for evaluating the antibacterial properties of dental cements used. ADT is based on placing dental cement specimens on agar plates, which are seeded with micro‐organisms, and then the degree of antibacterial activity of each sample is evaluated by taking gauge of inhibition zone around specimens after incubation (6). However, this assay has several disadvantages, and there are some acknowledged limitations in ADT. This assay just has ability to measure released water‐soluble components, so the results of ADT depend on the solubility and diffusion properties of both dental cements and media. For dental cements, ideal ones are expected to have low solubility and less diffusion, so at this time, ADT may not detect the antibacterial activity. The results of ADT are usually semiquantitative. It is also difficult to control the variables during testing, such as the density of bacterial inocula, growth medium, storage conditions of agar plates, etc (6) (11) (12) (13). To avoid the limitations ADT has, DCT has been developed to quantitatively measure the effect of physical direct and close contact between the tested materials and bacteria. Classic DCT was first described by Weiss et al (14). It is based on the growth of bacteria in 96‐well microtiter plates after direct contact between materials and bacteria. The growth of bacteria in each well was measured and recorded at 650nm continuously at 37 degrees every 30 minutes, by using a temperature‐controlled spectrophotometer (13). Compared with ADT, DCT is independent of the solubility of antibacterial components from cements and diffusion properties. Also, the DCT simulates the clinical situation, so the results of DCT are more convincing than ADT (11) (12) (13). In this investigation, resazurin is used in the direct‐contact test. Resazurin is a fluorescent blue dye used as an indicator of cell viability. Metabolically active cells 6 can reduce resazurin to resorufin and dihydroresorufin, from blue color to pink color. Resazurin is nonfluorescent, and resorufin is fluorescent. The degree of fluorescence can be measured colorimetrically or fluorometrically, and represents bacterial cell viability after direct contact, and then the antibacterial properties of each dental materials can be found out. One of the advantages of resazurin is that it is non‐toxic to cells and stable in the culture medium. The resazurin test consumes less time, and it is quite convenient to control, compared with the classic DCT (15) (16) (17). 1.5. Aim of the study The objective of this study is to assess and compare the antibacterial properties of six different dental cements on S. mutans during hardening by using the resazurin test and agar diffusion test, and also test the effects of different pH and different concentration of fluoride on the bacterial survival and attempt to explain the results and mechanisms according to the characteristics of each dental cement. 7 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Specimens preparation Six types of dental cements were investigated. The brands, types, suppliers and mixing radio used in this study are shown in Table 1. RelyX Unicem capsule was inserted in the AplicapTM Activator (manufactured by 3M ESPE), and the activator lever was pushed completely down and held down for 2‐4 seconds. Then the RelyX Unicem capsule was triturated in high speed by CapMixTM, manufactured by 3M ESPE, for 15 seconds. The capsule was inserted in the Aplicap Applier after mixing, and the nozzle was opened as far as possible. Then the cement was covered the entire mold evenly, and the surface of the filled mold was placed over by a plastic film. The mold was 1.5 mm deep, and the diameter was 5mm. After exposing to the artificial visible blue light for 60 seconds, the cement was cured. Then the plastic film was removed, and specimens were incubated in the 37°C oven in a dry condition. The preparation for KetacTM Cem AplicapTM was similar to RelyX Unicem at beginning. After mixing by CapMixTM for 10 seconds, the capsule was inserted in the Aplicap Applier, and the cement was spread into the mold. Then the samples were incubated in the 37°C oven in the moist condition for 10 min. After setting, the specimens were removed out of mold, and incubated in the 37°C oven in the moist condition. The Harvard zinc phosphate cement was mixed in the proportions 3/2 (powder/liquid). A spatula was used to mix the powder and liquid in 90 seconds, to achieve a homogenous consistency. The mixed cement was transferred into mold and incubated in the 37°C oven in the moist condition for 7 min. After setting, the specimens were removed out of mold, and incubated in the 37°C oven in the moist condition. The P/L ratio of mixing for Ceramir, Calcium Aluminate, and GIC are shown in Table 1. The setting time for all of them was 10 min at 37°C and moist condition. Then all the specimens were incubated in the 37°C oven in the moist condition. All the specimens were allowed to age in the oven for 10 min, 1 day, and 7 days before testing, and six repeats for the same experiment. 8 2.2. Bacterial strain and growth conditions The indicator bacterial strain which was used to determine the growth inhibition activity of the 6 different dental materials was Streptococcus mutans, and the original strain was supplied by Department of Engineering sciences, Nanotechnology and Functional Materials group, which was isolated from dental plaque. This strain was activated and grown in the brain‐heart infusion broth (BHI) medium for 24 hours at 37°C anaerobically (without shaking) from the plate of frozen‐stock cultures. 2.3. Agar diffusion test For agar diffusion test, 100 μl of bacterial suspension which was activated in the BHI medium from frozen‐stock cultures were spread on 1% BHI agar plates evenly, and the plates were dried for 1 hour at room temperature. Then the specimens with different aging time (in sextuple) were inserted in the surface of BHI agar plates previously inoculated with S. mutans vertically and were incubated anaerobically for 17 hours at 37°C. After incubation, the agar plates were examined for inhibition of bacterial growth. Under these conditions, the semidiameter of inhibition zone was measured and recorded. Each of the experiment with different materials and different times were carried out in sextuple. 2.4. Resazurin test For the resazurin test, besides the six different materials with three different aging time (in sextuple) as testing group, six specimens made of Poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) were used as control group, which is the same size as testing specimens, 1.5 mm in deep and 5 mm in diameter. A microtiter plate (96‐well, flat‐bottom Transparent Polystyrol) was used, and all the specimens, both testing group and control group were put into it, one specimen for one well. The original S. mutans suspension of 5 μl which was activated in the BHI medium from frozen‐stock cultures were added on the surface of each specimen to make sure directly and closely contact between the testing micro‐organism and the testing materials. Then the plate was incubated in 37°C for 1 hr (check dryness every 15 min). MH broth 135 μl and 10×resazurin 15 μl was added to each well, and the plate was incubated in 37°C for 100 min (check color from blue to pink every 15 min). The standard curve was also done at the same time, and the dilution rate were 0.1×, 0.08×, 0.06×, 0.04×, 0.02×, 0.01×, 0.008×, 0.006×, 0.004×, 0.002×, 0.001×. Multimode microplate reader (Infinite® 200 PRO, TECAN) was used to measure the degree of fluorescence for each well. 9
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