To Julia Ellen Schutt (cid:45)(cid:54)(cid:57)(cid:3)(cid:48)(cid:53)(cid:45)(cid:54)(cid:57)(cid:52)(cid:40)(cid:59)(cid:48)(cid:54)(cid:53)(cid:33)(cid:3) Copyright © 2012 by SAGE Publications, Inc. (cid:58)(cid:40)(cid:46)(cid:44)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:92)(cid:73)(cid:83)(cid:80)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:80)(cid:86)(cid:85)(cid:90)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:48)(cid:85)(cid:74)(cid:21) All rights reserved. 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(cid:41)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:22)(cid:48)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:86)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:42)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:80)(cid:93)(cid:76)(cid:3)(cid:48)(cid:85)(cid:75)(cid:92)(cid:90)(cid:91)(cid:89)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:83)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:72) Investigating the social world : the process and practice of research / (cid:52)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:57)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:75)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:76)(cid:94)(cid:3)(cid:43)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:79)(cid:80)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:24)(cid:23)(cid:3)(cid:23)(cid:27)(cid:27)(cid:3) Russell K. Schutt.—7th ed. (cid:48)(cid:85)(cid:75)(cid:80)(cid:72) p. cm. (cid:58)(cid:40)(cid:46)(cid:44)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:92)(cid:73)(cid:83)(cid:80)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:80)(cid:86)(cid:85)(cid:90)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:90)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:20)(cid:55)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:80)(cid:196)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:91)(cid:76)(cid:21)(cid:3)(cid:51)(cid:91)(cid:75)(cid:21) Includes bibliographical references and index. (cid:26)(cid:26)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:80)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:91)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:76)(cid:91)(cid:3)(cid:10)(cid:23)(cid:25)(cid:20)(cid:23)(cid:24) ISBN 978-1-4129-9980-9 (pbk.) (cid:45)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:72)(cid:90)(cid:91)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:88)(cid:92)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:76) ISBN 978-1-4129-9981-6 (pbk. w/SPSS CD) (cid:58)(cid:80)(cid:85)(cid:78)(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:3)(cid:23)(cid:27)(cid:31)(cid:30)(cid:29)(cid:26)(cid:3) 1. Social problems—Research. 2. Social sciences—Research. I. Title. HN29.S34 2012 361.1072—dc23 2011031279 (cid:40)(cid:74)(cid:88)(cid:92)(cid:80)(cid:90)(cid:80)(cid:91)(cid:80)(cid:86)(cid:85)(cid:90)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:75)(cid:80)(cid:91)(cid:86)(cid:89)(cid:33)(cid:3) (cid:49)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:89)(cid:96)(cid:3)(cid:62)(cid:76)(cid:90)(cid:91)(cid:73)(cid:96) (cid:40)(cid:90)(cid:90)(cid:86)(cid:74)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:76)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:75)(cid:80)(cid:91)(cid:86)(cid:89)(cid:33)(cid:3) (cid:52)(cid:76)(cid:78)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:50)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:91)(cid:83)(cid:80) (cid:44)(cid:75)(cid:80)(cid:91)(cid:86)(cid:89)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:83)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:90)(cid:90)(cid:80)(cid:90)(cid:91)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:91)(cid:33)(cid:3) (cid:44)(cid:89)(cid:80)(cid:84)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:73)(cid:92)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:75) (cid:55)(cid:89)(cid:86)(cid:75)(cid:92)(cid:74)(cid:91)(cid:80)(cid:86)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:75)(cid:80)(cid:91)(cid:86)(cid:89)(cid:33)(cid:3) (cid:44)(cid:89)(cid:80)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:46)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:89) (cid:42)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:96)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:75)(cid:80)(cid:91)(cid:86)(cid:89)(cid:33)(cid:3) (cid:46)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:91)(cid:74)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:59)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:75)(cid:94)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83) (cid:59)(cid:96)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:90)(cid:76)(cid:91)(cid:91)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:33)(cid:3) (cid:42)(cid:13)(cid:52)(cid:3)(cid:43)(cid:80)(cid:78)(cid:80)(cid:91)(cid:72)(cid:83)(cid:90)(cid:3)(cid:15)(cid:55)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:51)(cid:91)(cid:75)(cid:21) (cid:55)(cid:89)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:77)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:33)(cid:3) (cid:58)(cid:92)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:74)(cid:79)(cid:86)(cid:85) (cid:48)(cid:85)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:95)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:33)(cid:3) (cid:52)(cid:86)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:96)(cid:3)(cid:47)(cid:72)(cid:83)(cid:83) (cid:42)(cid:86)(cid:93)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:3)(cid:43)(cid:76)(cid:90)(cid:80)(cid:78)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:33)(cid:3) (cid:41)(cid:89)(cid:96)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:45)(cid:80)(cid:90)(cid:79)(cid:84)(cid:72)(cid:85) This book is printed on acid-free paper. (cid:52)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:82)(cid:76)(cid:91)(cid:80)(cid:85)(cid:78)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:78)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:33)(cid:3) (cid:44)(cid:89)(cid:80)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:43)(cid:76)(cid:51)(cid:92)(cid:74)(cid:72) (cid:55)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:84)(cid:80)(cid:90)(cid:90)(cid:80)(cid:86)(cid:85)(cid:90)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:75)(cid:80)(cid:91)(cid:86)(cid:89)(cid:33)(cid:3) (cid:50)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:79)(cid:89)(cid:84)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:85) 11 12 13 14 15 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents About the Author xiv Preface xv Acknowledgments xx 1. Science, Society, and Social Research 1 2. The Process and Problems of Social Research 25 3. Research Ethics and Philosophies 63 4. Conceptualization and Measurement 93 5. Sampling 135 6. Research Design and Causation 171 7. Experiments 198 8. Survey Research 229 9. Qualitative Methods 280 10. Qualitative Data Analysis 320 11. Evaluation and Policy Research 358 12. Historical and Comparative Research 387 13. Secondary Data Analysis and Content Analysis 413 14. Quantitative Data Analysis 445 15. Summarizing and Reporting Research 492 Glossary 519 Appendix A: Questions to Ask About a Research Article 531 Appendix B: How to Read a Research Article 533 Appendix C: Table of Random Numbers 559 On the Study Site Appendix D: How to Use a Statistical Package Appendix E: Annotated List of Web Sites Appendix F: Summaries of Frequently Cited Research Articles Bibliography 565 Credits 591 Index 595 Detailed Contents About the Author xiv (cid:2) SPSS EXERCISES 23 Preface xv (cid:2) DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 24 Acknowledgments xx 2. The Process and Problems of 1. Science, Society, and Social Research 25 Social Research 1 Social Research Questions 27 Learning About the Identifying Social Research Social World 2 Questions 27 Avoiding Errors in Reasoning Refining Social Research Questions 28 About the Social World 5 Evaluating Social Research Questions 28 Observing 6 Feasibility 28 Generalizing 6 Social Importance 29 Reasoning 7 Scientific Relevance 29 Reevaluating 8 Social Research Foundations 29 Searching the Literature 30 Research in the News: Twitter Users Reviewing Research 32 Flock Together 9 A Single-Article Review: Formal Science and Social Science 9 and Informal Deterrents to Motives for Social Research 11 Domestic Violence 33 Types of Social Research 12 An Integrated Literature Review: When Descriptive Research 12 Does Arrest Matter? 35 Exploratory Research 13 Theoretical Perspectives for Social Explanatory Research 14 Research 37 Evaluation Research 15 Social Research Strategies 39 Alternative Research Orientations 16 Quantitative and Qualitative Research in the News: Investigating Child Methods 16 Abuse Doesn’t Reduce It 39 Basic Science or Applied Research 17 Explanatory Research 40 Strengths and Limitations of Social Deductive Research 40 Research 18 Domestic Violence and the Research Conclusions 19 Circle 42 (cid:2) KEY TERMS 21 Inductive Research 44 (cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 21 Exploratory Research 45 (cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 22 Victim Responses to Police (cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 22 Intervention 46 (cid:2) ETHICS QUESTIONS 23 Battered Women’s Help Seeking 46 (cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 23 Descriptive Research 47 Social Research Goals 48 (cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 91 Measurement Validity 48 (cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 91 Generalizability 49 (cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 91 Causal Validity 51 (cid:2) DEVELOPING Authenticity 51 A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 92 Social Research Proposals 51 Case Study: Treating Substance 4. Conceptualization and Abuse 52 Measurement 93 Conclusions 58 (cid:2) KEY TERMS 59 Concepts 94 (cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 59 Conceptualization (cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 60 in Practice 95 (cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 60 Substance Abuse 95 (cid:2) ETHICS QUESTIONS 61 Youth Gangs 96 (cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 61 Poverty 97 (cid:2) SPSS EXERCISES 61 (cid:2) DEVELOPING Research in the News: How Poverty is A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 62 Defined Matters 98 Trust 100 Operationalization 100 3. Research Ethics and Abstract and Concrete Concepts 101 Philosophies 63 Operationalizing the Concept of Race 102 Historical Background 66 Operationalizing the Concept of Intimate Research in the News: Syphilis Experiments Partner Violence 104 in Guatemala 66 From Observations to Concepts 105 Ethical Principles 68 Being “In” and “Out” 105 Achieving Valid Results 68 Diversity 106 Honesty and Openness 69 Measurement Operations 106 Protecting Research Using Available Data 107 Participants 70 Constructing Questions 108 Avoid Harming Research Making Observations 110 Participants 71 Collecting Unobtrusive Measures 111 Obtain Informed Consent 74 Combining Measurement Operations 112 Avoid Deception in Research, Except in Triangulation 114 Limited Circumstances 79 Levels of Measurement 114 Maintain Privacy and Nominal Level of Measurement 114 Confidentiality 80 Ordinal Level of Measurement 116 The Uses of Research 80 Interval Level of Measurement 117 Philosophical Issues 83 Ratio Level of Measurement 117 Positivism and Postpositivism 83 The Special Case of Dichotomies 118 Positivist Research Guidelines 84 Comparison of Levels of Interpretivism and Constructivism 86 Measurement 119 Interpretivist/Constructivist Research Evaluating Measures 120 Guidelines 87 Measurement Validity 120 Scientific Paradigms 88 Face Validity 121 Conclusions 89 Content Validity 121 (cid:2) KEY TERMS 90 Criterion Validity 122 (cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 90 Construct Validity 123 Reliability 124 Conclusions 166 Test-Retest Reliability 124 (cid:2) KEY TERMS 167 Interitem Reliability (Internal (cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 167 Consistency) 125 (cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 168 Alternate-Forms Reliability 125 (cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 168 Interobserver Reliability 125 (cid:2) ETHICS QUESTIONS 169 Ways to Improve Reliability and (cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 169 Validity 126 (cid:2) SPSS EXERCISES 170 Conclusions 129 (cid:2) DEVELOPING (cid:2) KEY TERMS 130 A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 170 (cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 130 (cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 131 6. Research Design and (cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 131 Causation 171 (cid:2) ETHICS QUESTIONS 133 (cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 133 Research Design Alternatives 172 (cid:2) SPSS EXERCISES 134 Units of Analysis 173 (cid:2) DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 134 Individual and Group 173 Research in the News: Group 5. Sampling 135 Intelligence, Not Individuals’ Intelligence, Improves Group Performance 174 Sample Planning 136 Define Sample Components and the The Ecological Fallacy and Population 136 Reductionism 174 Evaluate Generalizability 138 Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Designs 175 Research in the News: Sample Polls Indicate Cross-Sectional Designs 175 Latino Turnout Likely to Lag 139 Longitudinal Designs 177 Assess the Diversity of the Population 139 Quantitative or Qualitative Causal Consider a Census 141 Explanations 182 Sampling Methods 142 Quantitative (Nomothetic) Causal Probability Sampling Methods 144 Explanations 182 Simple Random Sampling 146 Qualitative (Idiographic) Causal Systematic Random Sampling 148 Explanations 183 Stratified Random Sampling 148 Criteria for Nomothetic Causal Cluster Sampling 152 Explanations 184 Probability Sampling Methods Association 187 Compared 153 Time Order 187 Nonprobability Sampling Methods 154 Experimental Designs 187 Availability Sampling 154 Nonexperimental Quota Sampling 155 Designs 187 Purposive Sampling 157 Nonspuriousness 188 Snowball Sampling 157 Randomization 189 Lessons About Statistical Control 190 Sample Quality 158 Mechanism 190 Generalizability in Qualitative Context 192 Research 159 Conclusions 192 Sampling Distributions 161 (cid:2) KEY TERMS 193 Estimating Sampling Error 161 (cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 193 Sample Size Considerations 165 (cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 194 (cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 195 Ethical Issues in Experimental (cid:2) ETHICS QUESTIONS 196 Research 222 (cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 196 Deception 222 (cid:2) SPSS EXERCISES 196 Selective Distribution of Benefits 223 (cid:2) DEVELOPING Conclusions 224 A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 197 (cid:2) KEY TERMS 225 (cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 225 7. Experiments 198 (cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 226 (cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 226 True Experiments 199 (cid:2) ETHICS QUESTIONS 227 Experimental and Comparison (cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 227 Groups 200 (cid:2) SPSS EXERCISES 227 Pretest and Posttest Measures 200 (cid:2) DEVELOPING Randomization 202 A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 228 Research in the News: Nudge 8. Survey Research 229 the Vote 202 Survey Research in the Social Limitations of True Experimental Sciences 230 Designs 204 Attractions of Survey Research 230 Summary: Causality in True Versatility 230 Experiments 205 Efficiency 231 Quasi-Experiments 206 Generalizability 231 Nonequivalent Control Group The Omnibus Survey 232 Designs 206 Errors in Survey Research 233 Aggregate Matching 207 Writing Survey Questions 234 Individual Matching 208 Avoid Confusing Phrasing 234 Before-and-After Designs 209 Minimize the Risk of Bias 236 Summary: Causality in Avoid Making Either Disagreement or Quasi-Experiments 211 Agreement Disagreeable 238 Nonexperiments 212 Minimize Fence-Sitting and Floating 238 Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs 212 Maximize the Utility of Response One-Shot Case Studies and Longitudinal Categories 240 Designs 213 Combining Questions in Indexes 242 Summary: Causality in Designing Questionnaires 244 Nonexperiments 214 Build on Existing Instruments 245 Validity in Experiments 214 Refine and Test Questions 246 Causal (Internal) Validity 214 Add Interpretive Questions 247 Selection Bias 215 Research in the News: The Bad Differential Attrition 215 Endogenous Change 216 Mother Complex 248 External Events 217 Maintain Consistent Focus 249 Contamination 217 Order the Questions 249 Treatment Misidentification 218 Make the Questionnaire Attractive 251 Generalizability 219 Consider Translation 251 Sample Generalizability 219 Organizing Surveys 253 Factorial Surveys 219 Mailed, Self-Administered Surveys 254 External Validity 221 Group-Administered Surveys 258 Interaction of Testing and Telephone Surveys 258 Treatment 221 Reaching Sample Units 258