INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES: A Toolkit of Best Prevention and Management Practices Edited by Rüdiger Wittenberg and Matthew J.W. Cock CABI Publishing on behalf of the Global Invasive Species Programme The designation of geographical entities in this publication, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever, on the part of CABI, SCOPE, IUCN or GISP, concerning the legal status of any country, territory or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Published by: CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, UK, The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of CAB International. Copyright: © 2001 CAB International on behalf of the Global Invasive Species Programme. Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction for resale or other commercial purpose is prohibited without the prior written permission from the copyright holder. Citation: Wittenberg, R., Cock, M.J.W. (eds.) 2001. Invasive Alien Species: A Toolkit of Best Prevention and Management Practices. CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, UK, xvii - 228. ISBN: 0 85199 569 1 Catalogue records of this book are available from the British Library, London, UK, and from the Library of Congress, Washington DC, USA Design: The Visual Group, 345 California Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94306, USA. Tel: +01 650 327 1553, Fax: +01 650 327 2417 Email: [email protected] Available from: CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon OX10 8DE, UK Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111, Fax +44 (0)1491 833508, Email:[email protected] Website http://www.cabi.org CABI Publishing, 10 East 40th Street, Suite 3203, New York, NY, 10016, USA Tel: +1 212 481 7018, Fax +1 212 686 7993, Email: [email protected] Cover images: Front cover: Top left: Water hyacinth, Eichornia crassipes, an infestation in Antananarivo, Madagascar (R.H. Reeder, CABI Bioscience). Right: Staff of Malawi Fisheries Department programme rearing water hyacinth biological control agents, Malawi Fisheries Department with support from CAB International and the Plant Protection Research Institute, Republic of South Africa (M.J.W. Cock, CABI). Background: Neochetina eichhorniae, a biological control agent for water hyacinth (CABI Bioscience). Lower left: Water hyacinth infesting a lagoon village in Benin (D. Moore, CABI Bioscience). Lower foreground: Flower of water hyacinth (R.H. Reeder, CABI Bioscience). Back cover: Clearing of invasive alien trees in the Western Cape Province (Working for Water Programme, Republic of South Africa); Argentine ant, Iridomyrmex humilis (SA Museum, H. Robertson); Rat, Rattus sp. (Jack Jeffrey Photography); American comb jelly, Mnemiopsis leidyi (Harbison); Brown tree snake, Boiga irregularis (Gordon H. Rodda/USGS). The Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) is co-ordinated by the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), in collaboration with the World Conservation Union (IUCN), and CAB International (CABI). GISP has received financial support from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) - Global Environment Facility (GEF), United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Norwegian Government, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the International Council for Scientific Unions (ICSU), La Foundation TOTAL, OESI, the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, and the John D. and Catharine T. MacArthur Foundation. Participating groups and individuals have made substantial in-kind contributions. GISP is a component of DIVERSITAS, an international programme on biodiversity science. ii CONTENTS PREFACE viii The workshop participants who designed this toolkit xi Toolkit Summary 1 1 INTRODUCTION 4 2 BUILDING STRATEGY AND POLICY 7 Summary 7 2.1 Making the case for national commitment 9 2.2 Assessment 9 2.3 Building institutional support 10 2.4 Social marketing strategies for engaging communities in invasive species management Social marketing in seven steps 12 2.5 Institutionalising the national commitment 16 2.5.1 The national strategy 16 2.5.2 Legal and institutional frameworks 18 3 PREVENTION 47 Summary 47 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 Pathways 51 3.2.1 Intentional introductions 52 Plants introduced for agricultural purposes 52 Foreign plants grown for forestry use 53 Non-indigenous plants used for soil improvements 53 "Aid-trade" 54 Ornamental plants 54 Germplasm 55 Birds and mammals released for hunting purposes 55 Mammals released on islands as food resource 55 Biological control 55 Fishery releases 56 Pets released into the wild and aquarium trade 56 Reintroductions 57 Releases to "enrich" the native flora and fauna 57 3.2.2 Introductions to captivity 57 Escapes from captivity such as zoos and botanical gardens 58 Farmed mammals 58 Aquaculture and mariculture 59 Research and introductions through research institutes 59 3.2.3 Accidental introductions 59 Contaminants of agricultural produce 59 Seed and invertebrate contamination of nursery plants 60 Seed and invertebrate contamination of cut flower trade 60 Organisms in or on timber 60 Seed contaminants 61 Soil inhabiting species 61 Machinery, equipment, vehicles, army, etc. 61 iii Hitchhikers in or on package material 62 Hitchhikers in or on mail and cargo 62 Hitchhikers in or on planes 63 Ballast soil 63 Ballast water of ships 63 Ballast sediment in ballast water tanks 64 Hull fouling 64 Debris 64 Tourists and their luggage/equipment 65 Diseases in animals traded for agricultural and other purposes 65 Parasites, pathogens and hitchhikers of aquaculture and mariculture 66 3.2.4 Vectors of spread after introduction 66 Spread from neighbouring countries after introduction 66 Human-made structures which enhance spread of alien species 66 Human alteration of habitats and changes in agricultural practices 67 3.3 Exclusion methods 67 Quarantine laws and regulations 69 Accessibility of information on invasive organisms 69 Public education 69 Inspection 70 Treatment technologies for pathways to prevent bioinvasions 70 3.4 Risk assessments 71 4 EARLY DETECTION 101 Summary 101 Introduction 102 4.1 Surveys 103 4.1.1 General surveys 103 4.1.2 Site specific surveys 103 4.1.3 Species specific surveys 105 4.1.4 Data collection and storage 107 4.2 Developing a corps of experts/trainers 107 4.2.1 Who to train 107 4.2.2 Training needs 109 4.2.3 Where to train 109 4.2.4 Who will do the training 109 4.2.5 Staff retention 110 4.3 Contingency plans and funding 110 4.3.1 Costs of contingency actions 112 5 ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 124 Summary 124 5.1 Initial assessment 126 5.2 Priorities for management 128 5.3 Management strategies 130 5.3.1 Eradication 131 5.3.2 Containment 138 5.3.3 Control 139 5.3.4 Mitigation 140 iv 5.4 Methods 141 5.4.1 Mechanical control 145 5.4.2 Chemical control 147 5.4.3 Biological control 149 Biopesticides 152 Pathogens for control of vertebrates 153 Biological control of freshwater and marine targets 153 Biological control of plant diseases 154 5.4.4 Habitat management 154 Prescribed burning 154 Grazing 155 Changing abiotic factors 155 Hunting and other use of non-indigenous species 155 5.4.5 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 156 5.5 Monitoring and follow-up 158 5.6 Project management 159 5.7 Securing resources 160 5.7.1 Use of volunteers 161 5.7.2 Tapping of other resources 161 5.8 Engaging stakeholders 162 5.9 Training in invasives control methods 164 5.10 Training for planners and managers 165 6 HOW TO USE THIS TOOLKIT 213 LOCALITY INDEX 216 TAXA INDEX 220 KEY PUBLICATIONS OF GISP 228 INFORMATION BOXES 2.1 Some Internet-Based Databases and Documents on Invasive Alien species 24 3.1 Some Pest Risk Assessment Information Sources 76 5.1 Some Reference Sources on Chemical Pesticides 166 5.2 Some Reference Sources on Biological Control 167 5.3 Some Reference Sources on IPM 168 5.4 Some Internet Reference Sources on IPM 169 5.5 Some Short Training Courses Relevant to Invasive Species Management 170 CASE STUDIES 1.1 Acceleration of Colonization Rates in Hawaii 6 1.2 Particular Problems Related to Invasive Species in the South Pacific 6 2.1 Development of the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) 27 2.2 Economic Costs of Invasive Alien Species in the USA 28 2.3 Economic Justification for the "Working for Water" Programme in South Africa 29 2.4 The Economic Case for Control of Leafy Spurge in North Dakota, USA 30 2.5 Scientists Petition for Action on Green Seaweed in the USA 31 2.6 Learning from Others’ Experience: The Case of Miconia calvescens 32 2.7 The Dirty Dozen - America's Least Wanted Alien Species 33 v 2.8 Developing a Strategy for Improving Hawaii's Protection Against Harmful Alien Species 34 2.9 The Establishment of an Inter-Ministerial Committee to Control Miconia calvescens and Other Invasive Species in French Polynesia 35 2.10 Co-ordination of Witchweed Eradication in the USA 36 2.11 Summary of Australia’s National Weeds Strategy 37 2.12 The Process of Determining Weeds of National Significance in Australia 39 2.13 Invasive Alien Species Priorities for the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) 40 2.14 Invasive Alien Species National Priorities in Mauritius 41 2.15 Mauritius and La Réunion Co-operate to Prevent a Sugar Cane Pest Spreading 42 2.16 Priorities for Action: Hawaii 43 2.17 The Human Dimensions of Invasive Alien Species 44 2.18 A National Assessment of Invasives: the U.S. Office of Technology Assessment Report 45 2.19 Developing a Strategy for Prevention of Invasive Alien Species Introductions into the Russian Coastal and Inland Waters 46 3.1 Rosy Wolfsnail, Euglandina rosea, Exterminates Endemic Island Snails 77 3.2 How Africanised Honey Bees Came to the Americas 78 3.3 The Precautionary Principle 79 3.4 The Impact of Zebra Mussel on Ecosystems 80 3.5 Asian Longhorned Beetle, a Threat to North American Forests 81 3.6 The Threat of South American Leaf Blight to Rubber in Malaysia 82 3.7 Anecdotes about Entry Pathways 83 3.8 Spread of a Biological Control Agent, Cactoblastis cactorum, in the Caribbean Basin 84 3.9 Release of Exotic Fish by Aquarium Hobbyists – the USA Experience 85 3.10 The Introduction of Parthenium Weed into Ethiopia 86 3.11 Long-distance Spread of Miconia calvescens to Remote Islands of French Polynesia 87 3.12 The Australian Defence Force is Involved in Keeping Alien Species Out 88 3.13 Hitchhikers Moved with Marine Baitworms and Their Packing Material 89 3.14 Spread of the Brown Tree Snake in the Pacific Region 90 3.15 Monitoring for the Black Striped Mussel in Northern Territory, Australia 91 3.16 Transfer of Pathogens and Other Species via Oyster Culture 92 3.17 Japanese Brown Alga Introduced with Oysters 93 3.18 Sorry, No Free Rides from the Torres Strait 94 3.19 Beagle Brigade Assists in the Search for Forbidden Imports 95 3.20 Australia’s Weed Risk Assessment System 96 3.21 Two Views of the Rainbow Lorikeet in New Zealand 97 3.22 Siberian Timber Imports: Analysis of a Potentially High-Risk Pathway 98 3.23 Invasiveness Cannot Be Reliably Predicted 99 3.24 GISP Global Database / Early Warning Component 100 4.1 First Detection of European Green Crab in Washington State 113 4.2 Early Detection and Eradication of White-Spotted Tussock Moth in New Zealand 114 4.3 Early Warning Systems for Plants in New Zealand 115 4.4 The First Eradication of an Established Introduced Marine Invader 115 4.5 Detection of Chromolaena Weed in Australia 116 4.6 Public Awareness and Early Detection of Miconia calvescens in French Polynesia 117 4.7 Early Detection of Rats on Tiritiri Matangi 118 4.8 Early Detection Plan for Hibiscus Mealybug in the Bahamas 118 4.9 Spread of the Aphid Vector of Citrus Tristeza Virus 119 4.10 Community Monitoring of Introduced Marine Pests in Australia 120 4.11 Public Awareness Poster for Cypress Aphid 121 vi 4.12 What Goes into a Contingency Plan? 122 4.13 Building a Knowledge Base for Rapid Response Action 124 5.1 Problems Caused by Water Hyacinth as an Invasive Alien Species 171 5.2 Paper-bark Tree Alters Habitats in Florida 172 5.3 Chestnut Blight Changes a Forest Ecosystem 172 5.4 Hybridisation 173 5.5 Eradication of a Deliberately Introduced Plant Found to be Invasive 174 5.6 Eradication Programme for Chromolaena Weed in Australia 175 5.7 Rabbit Eradication on Phillip Island 176 5.8 Eradication of the Giant African Snail in Florida 177 5.9 Eradicating Screwworms from North America and North Africa 178 5.10 Fire Ant: an Eradication Programme that Failed 179 5.11 Colonization Rate of Hibiscus Mealybug in the Caribbean 180 5.12 Surveying for Chromolaena Weed Infestations in Australia 181 5.13 Controversy Over Mammal Control Programmes 182 5.14 Containment of the Spread of Chromolaena Weed in Australia 183 5.15 Containment vs. Eradication: Miconia calvescens in Hawaii 184 5.16 Seed Movement on Vehicles: a Study from Kakadu National Park, Australia 184 5.17 Reptile Recovery on Round Island 185 5.18 Conservation Management Areas in Mauritius 186 5.19 Mechanical and Chemical Control of Seastars in Australia are Not Promising 187 5.20 Mechanical Control Methods for Water Hyacinth 188 5.21 Chemical Control of Miconia calvescens in Hawaii 189 5.22 Overview of Successful Rat Eradications on Islands 190 5.23 Eradication of the Black Striped Mussel in Northern Territory, Australia 191 5.24 Biological Control of an Insect to Save an Endemic Tree on St Helena 192 5.25 Bacillus thuringiensis, the Most Widely Used Biopesticide 193 5.26 Biological Control of Water Weeds 194 5.27 Possible Biological Control for European Green Crab 195 5.28 Control Methods for Australian Pine Include Prescribed Burning 196 5.29 An IPM Research Programme on Horse Chestnut Leafminer in Europe 197 5.30 Integrated Management of Water Hyacinth 198 5.31 What Can Happen When an Invasive Alien Species is Controlled 199 5.32 Development of a European Research Programme on Horse Chestnut Leafminer 200 5.33 Social and Environmental Benefits of the Fynbos Working for Water Programme 201 5.34 Ecotourism as a Source of Funding to Control Invasive Species 202 5.35 Use of Volunteers 203 5.36 Using the Media to Create Awareness and Support for Management of Invasive Species: the Seychelles Experience 204 5.37 Community Participation in Control of Salvinia in Papua New Guinea 205 5.38 The Use of Local Part-time Volunteers to Help Restore a Nature Reserve on Rodrigues 206 5.39 A Preliminary Risk Assessment of Cane Toads in Kakadu National Park 207 5.40 Community-based Aboriginal Weed Management in the ‘Top End’ of Northern Australia 208 5.41 Invasive Species Mitigation to Save the Seychelles Black Parrot 209 5.42 Eradication of the Grey Squirrel in Italy: Failure of the Programme and Future Scenarios 210 5.43 Students Help to Restore a Rainforest by Weeding 211 5.44 Eradication Programmes against the American Mink in Europe 212 vii PREFACE The Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) is co-ordinated by the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), in collaboration with the World Conservation Union (IUCN), and CAB International (CABI). GISP has received initial financial support from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) - Global Environment Facility (GEF), United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Norwegian Government, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the International Council for Scientific Unions (ICSU), La Fondation TOTAL, the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, and the John D. and Catharine T. MacArthur Foundation. Participating groups and individuals have made substantial in-kind contributions. GISP is a component of DIVERSITAS, an international programme on biodiversity science. The overall aim of GISP is to assemble the best available data on various components of the invasive alien species problem. This manual is one of the tools produced by GISP Phase I efforts. The toolkit was designed and partially drafted at an international workshop held in Kuala Lumpur, 22-27 March 1999, in conjunction with the GISP Early Warning component. The participants of the workshop are listed in the opening pages. Working from this excellent beginning, Rüdiger Wittenberg and Matthew Cock of CAB International prepared the text of the toolkit, which was then reviewed by the participants of the Kuala Lumpur workshop and their feedback incorporated. Dick Veitch of New Zealand acted as a third editor during this review process. The resultant draft was then provided to participants at the GISP Phase I Synthesis Conference held in Cape Town, Republic of South Africa in September 2000. Further review and input by the participants at the Conference was received. Many of the valuable suggestions made at GISP Phase I Synthesis have been incorporated, and the "final" toolkit text prepared for publication. The text and case studies will be adapted to form a website, which is intended as a dynamic version of the toolkit, to be updated with new information, internet links, and case studies as they become available. The Kuala Lumpur workshop discussed to whom the toolkit should be directed, and concluded that the main focus should be to assist those involved in environment and biodiversity conservation and management. It is not aimed directly at the public, policy makers, quarantine services etc., but should provide insights for these groups in addition to conservation managers. Nevertheless, the contents are likely to provide useful information to a wider group and will be widely disseminated. The workshop also discussed whether the toolkit should try and address all types of invasive species (e.g. agricultural, forestry, human health, etc.) or just those that affected environment and biodiversity. It was concluded that: ➤ Human diseases, although technically invasive, fall outside the scope of the toolkit, and are well addressed by other means; viii ➤ Examples, case histories and lessons of best practice will inevitably come from traditional sectors such as agriculture, forestry, etc.; ➤ Many of these invasive species will also have a significant impact on and be interlinked with the environment and biodiversity; ➤ The case for motivating funding sources will often depend more on the economic impact of invasive species in terms of increased production costs, lost production, loss of ecosystem services, human health etc. The toolkit is intended to be global in its applicability, although there is a small island focus, recognizing that the impact of invasive alien species on biodiversity is greater in small island systems. In any case, we anticipate that to be most useful and effective, the toolkit will need to be locally adapted for different countries or regions (Chapter 6). In this regard we would like to note that the case studies represent the particular expertise of the workshop participants, and the people we were subsequently able to work with during the preparation of the toolkit, and are therefore not representative of the full range of experience worldwide. We recommend additions of nationally and regionally focused case studies in local adaptations of the toolkit. In designing the toolkit, the Kuala Lumpur workshop also considered whether the GISP toolkit should be restricted to invasive alien species or also try to cover invasive indigenous species. It was concluded that: ➤ There are several examples of important indigenous invasive species, usually linked (or suspected to be linked) to land use change; ➤ Large parts of the toolkit would be irrelevant to this type of problem (e.g. most of early warning and prevention), although significant parts would be potentially useful (e.g. much of management); ➤ On balance the toolkit should retain its focus on invasive alien species, but where relevant the text should address what was or was not relevant to invasive indigenous species. The layout of the toolkit is intended to be largely self-explanatory. An introductory chapter to set the scene is followed by Chapter 2 on building strategy and policy, (i.e. how to develop national plans and support for them). Methods for prevention of invasive species and the risk-analysis process are dealt with in Chapter 3, while methods for early detection of new invasive species are reviewed in Chapter 4. A broad review of different management approaches is offered in Chapter 5, and some thoughts on how to use the toolkit are provided in Chapter 6. In the text we have recognized that there are often fundamental differences in the approach depending on the ecosystem being invaded (terrestrial, freshwater, marine) and the taxonomic group of the invasive species (vertebrates, invertebrates, diseases, plants, etc.). We have attempted to keep these distinctions clear by use of section headings. ix