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Further reproduction prohibited without permission. INVASION AND REVOLUTION: FRANCE AND FLORENCE IN 1494 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY, THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN HUMANITIES, AND THE COMMITTEE ON GRADUATE STUDIES OF STANFORD UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN HISTORY AND HUMANITIES by William Harrison Fredlund June, 1988 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (c) Copyright 1988 by William Harrison Fredlund ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I certify that I have read this thesis and that in my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy InljutUH- 0 • /Sa CWtv ( / (Principal Advisor) I certify that I have read this thesis and that in my opinion it is fully adequate, In scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy I certify that I have read this thesis and that in my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 7 (Graduate Program in Humanities) Approved for the University Committee on Graduate Studies: (Dean of Graduate Studies) iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PREFACE In the fall of 1494, the king of France led a military expedition to Italy for the purpose of claiming his rights to the kingdom of Naples. The size and power of the army caught all Italy unprepared, and in the ensuing turmoil a number of governments within the Italian peninsula were permanently changed. The Florentine Republic found itself in an especially exposed situation in front of the advancing army because of its strategic position astride the peninsula and because its leader, Piero de‘ Medici, had guided Florence into declared opposition to the French king. The explosive encounter between the army and the relatively defenseless republic led to a revolution in which Piero de‘ Medici was removed from power on November 9, 1494. It is the intent of this study to examine the relationship between the invasion and the revolution with special interest in the leadership of the two men, King Charles VIII and Piero de' Medici. Previous accounts have relied too heavily upon biased witnesses such as Philippe de Commynes, and it is the object here to see both leaders in new perspectives and thereby to establish a better understanding of the causality of the invasion and revolution. In addition, the reaction to these events by contemporaries as well as later Florentine historians will be examined. I would like to take this opportunity to thank Professors Judith Brown, Lewis Spitz, and Lawrence Ryan whose encouragement, support, and advice have helped bring this project to completion. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CONTENTS PART ONE: November 17, 1494 3 Porta San Frediano 13 The Army 31 King Charles Enters Florence 41 The Piazza della Signoria 53 The Cathedral 57 The Palazzo Medici 71 Charles VIII 85 Charles, Anne, and Louis 90 Fornovo PART TWO: Lombardy 124 Piacenza 131 Prophets and Omens 153 The Decision 170 The Cousins 191 On the Move PART THREE: Tuscany 208 Sarzana 223 Florence 266 Piero de' Medici 283 Empoli 296 Santo Stefano di Magra 317 The Ambassadors 334 The Revolution 346 Bibliography Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PART ONE: November 17,1494 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.