INTRODUCTION This publication consists of 11 selected papers from workshops organized by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, within the framework of the Programme on Space Applications in 2004. The Programme on Space Applications was established in 1971, with one of its main objectives to further general knowledge and experiences in the field of space technology between developed and developing countries. The Programme organizes around ten workshops, seminars and training courses on an annual basis for students and professionals from developing countries with the aim of increasing local capabilities in space technologies, thus helping to promote the peaceful use of outer space, in accordance with United Nations goals and principles. These activities bring together professionals from developed and developing countries and allow for an exchange of information in several space-related fields, including telecommunications, remote sensing and satellite applications, global environment and land resources management and international space regulations. This volume of “Seminars of the United Nations Programme on Space Applications” is the sixteenth publication in an annual series that began in 1989. The selected papers discuss a variety of science policy issues and are published in the language of submission. -iii- CONTENTS Introduction............................................................................................................iii I. Application-based themes Space-based Data: Between Pure Science and Down-to-Earth Application in Indonesia Thomas Djamaluddin................................................................................3 Status of the Cospas-Sarsat System Vladislav Studenov..................................................................................17 From Freedom to Alpha: Cooperation within the International Space Station Darly Henriques da Silva........................................................................25 Bam Earthquake Prediction & Space Technology Darrell Harrington and Zhonghao Shou...............................................39 II. Knowledge-based themes Basic Space Science in Arab Countries: Past, Present & Future Hamid M.K. Al-Naimiy...........................................................................67 New Explanation for Length Shortening of the New Crescent Moon A.H. Sultan...............................................................................................83 The Impact of Historical Chinese Astronomical Records Zhen-Ru Wang........................................................................................93 The Basic Space Science Initiative: Capacity Building in Developing Countries Bhavini Patel..........................................................................................101 The Applicability of Space Law Principles to Basic Space Science: An Update Sriram Swaminathan............................................................................117 III. Enabling technologies Amateur Satellites as a Vehicle for Satellite Communication Education Jonathan Newport.................................................................................145 IV. Cross-cutting issues What is the International Heliophysical Year (IHY)? N.U. Crooker..........................................................................................155 -v - I. APPLICATION-BASED THEMES Space-based Data: Between Pure Science and Down-to-Earth Application in Indonesia Thomas Djamaluddin National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN) Bandung, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected] Abstract An unclear night or an unclear day are obstacles for ground-based solar observation. With that in mind, space-based data are very important to overcome such obstacles. Originally, the first work on space-based data was done by using Infra Red Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) data in analyzing young stellar objects (YSOs). In that connection, unbiased and almost all-sky coverage data are considerably important in studying the evolution of young stellar objects. Such pure science research can be conducted by using the online or CD-ordered data. In addition, for a developing country such as Indonesia, space science observation faces other problems such as lack of sophisticated observational facilities. Moreover, for any research budget proposal (except for university research projects), the application of the results directly or indirectly should also be included at a certain point in time. Besides having affordable facilities, such as small telescopes and data processing computers, space- based data are accessible through the Internet and considerably rich to be used in research for several applications. In addition to ground-based observation, solar physical, solar-terrestrial and physical space-based data are mainly used in the so- called "down-to-earth" research application on space sciences. This paper discusses the utilization of space-based data for space science researches in Indonesia and its related problems. Firstly, space-based data and the problems in accessing it are briefly reviewed. Secondly, an example of utilizing space data for scientific research only is also discussed. Lastly, an example of "down-to- earth" research application is provided. 1. Introduction Space researchers have been collecting and analyzing information received mainly by electromagnetic detectors. Unfortunately, not all ranges of electromagnetic radiation from space objects are able to reach ground-based observational instruments. Visible and radio waves are the two ranges of electromagnetic spectra that can be detected from the ground. However, clouds prevent good and effective results from observing outer space. Astronomical as well as solar physical observation need clear seeing. Following recent progress made in the field of space technology, many orbiting observatories have been launched into outer space. Modern developments have become extremely important to overcome the limited number of days and nights normally used for space observation. Furthermore, space-based observatories can provide all ranges of electromagnetic spectra. -3- 2. Space-based data In general, space-based data can be divided into three groups: astrophysical, solar-physical and solar-terrestrial physical data. In order to mention some space- based data, a brief review will be provided.1 Radio–microwave–infrared observations have been performed by several space missions: Ariel 2, 3, and 4, Radio Astronomy Explorer (RAE) 1 (Explorer 38) and 2 (Explorer 49) (Nasa) Explorer 38 (RAE-1), Explorer 49 (RAE-2), The Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) Space Observatory Program (VSOP), RADIOASTRON, Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS), and Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP). MAP was launched into an orbit around the L2 Lagrange point of the Sun-Earth system. The Infra Red Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) has also conducted sky surveys. In addition, there is the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO). Other examples of infrared space observatories include the Spitzer Space Telescope (SST)/Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF), the Infrared Telescope Satellite/Space Flyer Unit IRTS/SFU, and the Midcourse Space Experiment (MSX). In the visible spectrum there are the Hipparcos and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Hipparcos was the astrometrical satellite for measuring high precision parallaxes, while the HST is an excellent imaging facility. HST can also perform a great deal of observations at ultraviolet wavelengths. In addition, the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) operates and observes ultraviolet radiation. Other examples of UV observatories are: Astron-1, Far UV Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE) and Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX). High-energy observations in EUV, X-ray, and Gamma-ray have been condicted by several space missions, such as the Astronomical Netherlands Satellite (ANS), the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE), and the Array of Low Energy X- ray Imaging Sensors (ALEXIS). Other examples include the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE), the Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics (ASCA), Chandra X-ray Observatory (CXO), Uhuru, The Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory (CGRO), and many others. Regarding solar physics research, several satellites have been sent into orbit. Ulysses, Yohkoh, the Transition Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE), and the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) are examples of several satellites that observe the Sun continuously. Furthermore, the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) produces data which are very important in studying solar-terrestrial physics. In general, images and numerical data (including graphical plots data) are produced to be further analyzed. Several space-based data are now open to the public and can be accessed online via the Internet or distributed through CD-ROMs or other media. This is important since data access via the Internet is very useful to the scientific community. However, there is a problem of data access via the Internet depending on the bandwidth of the Internet connection, which is in turn related to 1 (extracted from http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/index.html,http://www.seds.org/~spider/oaos/oaos.html) -4- problems regarding research budget. The expensive, high speed Internet and the difficulties in downloading images from it, along with the lack of analyzing tools (e.g. expensive Interactive Data Language – IDL) are all elements that prevent scientists in Indonesia from actively utilizing the provided online data. Small size images could be the solution to this particular problem and could overcome such difficulties. Lastly, numerical data and GIF format plots are considerably helpful in providing online space-based data. In Indonesia, the number of scientific researches is growing at universities and research institutions. However, for better results, scientific research should be combined with the so-called "down-to-earth" application at research institutions. Space science research should be in a position to produce more applicable results that could contribute to practical benefits to society as a whole. Solar-terrestrial physical data should be used for such a purpose. 3. Pure Science There are a good number of space-based data that are helpful for scientists in developing countries who have to deal with lack of observational facilities to participate in space science research. Below is an example of using space-based data for a scientific purpose. IRAS data in CD-ROM format consist of unbiased flux data of point sources. The data were analyzed in order to introduce a new far-infrared Hertzsprung-Russel (H-R) diagram of YSOs. This diagram is useful to track the evolutionary stage of such objects. The observed spectral energy distributions from far-infrared (FIR) to millimetre wavelengths of YSOs fit a modified blackbody radiation with a peak around 100 µm for both high- and low-mass YSOs. The spectra are nearly represented by the FIR colours made by IRAS flux densities at 60 and 100 µm. Using IRAS data, a FIR H-R diagram of cold YSOs is produced, the parameters of which are the FIR colour and the luminosity at 60 µm. In each FIR H-R diagram of YSOs of three nearby star-forming regions, YSOs in the early evolutionary phase form a fundamental sequence, along which they move increasing the luminosity while keeping the mass of FIR emitting envelope. The FIR H-R diagram of YSOs is useful for describing the luminosity evolution of YSOs in the protostar stage and for estimating the stellar masses of YSOs (Djamaluddin and Saito 1995, 1996, and references therein). There are two fundamental lines on the FIR H-R diagram. For the modified blackbody radiation with a temperature T , one obtains a dust mass of the FIR d emitting envelope, assuming dust properties. The dust mass is: M ~ 1.4 x 10-6 (0.48)βd2f (e 239.8/Td – 1) M d 60 o where β is dust emissivity (β=1 adopted), f is in Jansky (Jy) and the distance d is in 60 kiloparsec (kpc). The locus of a constant M is a fundamental line on the FIR H-R d diagram. Another fundamental line on the FIR H-R diagram is a relation between [100 – 60] =log(f / f ) and d2 f . 100 60 60 d2 f ~ { ( [100 - 60]max + 0.222(3 + β) )/([100 - 60] + 0.222(3 + β))}a x 60 -5- x {(Lmax/Lo)/0.31(4.578 + 1.762 x 10[100-60])} where [100 - 60]max is the colour at the maximum FIR luminosity of YSOs and a is a constant from 4 to 4 + β. -6-