The Project Gutenberg EBook of Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth C, by Henry Hallam This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries, Vol. 1 Author: Henry Hallam Release Date: October 2, 2013 [EBook #43868] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LITERATURE OF EUROPE *** Produced by Charlene Taylor, Carol Brown, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) Transcriber’s Note: This text includes characters that require UTF-8 (Unicode) file encoding: œ (oe ligature) διορθῶσαι (Greek) ñ (n with tilde) ç (c with cedilla) + - √ (mathematics symbols) ° (degree sign; temperature, latitude and longitude) If any of these characters do not display properly, make sure your text reader’s “character set” or “file encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to change the default font. Additional notes are at the end of the book. THE WORKS OF HENRY HALLAM. INTRODUCTION TO THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE IN THE FIFTEENTH, SIXTEENTH, AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. BY HENRY HALLAM, F.R.A.S., CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES IN THE FRENCH INSTITUTE VOLUME I. WARD, LOCK & CO., LONDON: WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, E.C. NEW YORK: BOND STREET. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. ON THE GENERAL STATE OF LITERATURE IN THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE END OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. Page Retrospect of Learning in Middle Ages Necessary 1 Loss of learning in Fall of Roman Empire 1 Boethius—his Consolation of Philosophy 1 Rapid Decline of Learning in Sixth Century 2 A Portion remains in the Church 2 Prejudices of the Clergy against Profane Learning 2 Their Uselessness in preserving it 3 First Appearances of reviving Learning in Ireland and England 3 Few Schools before the Age of Charlemagne 3 Beneficial Effects of those Established by him 4 The Tenth Century more progressive than usually supposed 4 Want of Genius in the Dark Ages 5 Prevalence of bad Taste 5 Deficiency of poetical Talent 5 Imperfect State of Language may account for this 6 Improvement at beginning of Twelfth Century 6 Leading Circumstances in Progress of Learning 6 Origin of the University of Paris 6 Modes of treating the Science of Theology 6 Scholastic Philosophy—its Origin 7 Roscelin 7 Progress of Scholasticism; Increase of University of Paris 8 Universities founded 8 Oxford 8 Collegiate Foundations not derived from the Saracens 9 Scholastic Philosophy promoted by Mendicant Friars 9 Character of this Philosophy 10 It prevails least in Italy 10 Literature in Modern Languages 10 Origin of the French, Spanish, and Italian Languages 10 Corruption of colloquial Latin in the Lower Empire 11 Continuance of Latin in Seventh Century 12 It is changed to a new Language in Eighth and Ninth 12 Early Specimens of French 13 Poem on Boethius 13 Provençal Grammar 14 Latin retained in use longer in Italy 14 French of Eleventh Century 14 Metres of Modern Languages 15 Origin of Rhyme in Latin 16 Provençal and French Poetry 16 Metrical Romances—Havelok the Dane 18 Diffusion of French Language 19 German Poetry of Swabian Period 19 Decline of German Poetry 20 Poetry of France and Spain 21 Early Italian Language 22 Dante and Petrarch 22 Change of Anglo-Saxon to English 22 Layamon 23 Progress of English Language 23 English of the Fourteenth Century—Chaucer, Gower 24 General Disuse of French in England 24 State of European Languages about 1400 25 Ignorance of Reading and Writing in darker Ages 25 Reasons for supposing this to have diminished after 1100 26 Increased Knowledge of Writing in Fourteenth Century 27 Average State of Knowledge in England 27 Invention of Paper 28 Linen Paper when first used 28 Cotton Paper 28 Linen Paper as old as 1100 28 Known to Peter of Clugni 29 And in Twelfth and Thirteenth Century 29 Paper of mixed Materials 29 Invention of Paper placed by some too low 29 Not at first very important 30 Importance of Legal Studies 30 Roman Laws never wholly unknown 31 Irnerius—his first Successors 31 Their Glosses 31 Abridgements of Law—Accursius’s Corpus Glossatum 31 Character of early Jurists 32 Decline of Jurists after Accursius 32 Respect paid to him at Bologna 33 Scholastic Jurists—Bartolus 33 Inferiority of Jurists in Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries 34 Classical Literature and Taste in dark Ages 34 Improvement in Tenth and Eleventh Centuries 34 Lanfranc and his Schools 35 Italy—Vocabulary of Papias 36 Influence of Italy upon Europe 36 Increased copying of Manuscripts 36 John of Salisbury 36 Improvement of Classical Taste in Twelfth Century 37 Influence of increased Number of Clergy 38 Decline of Classical Literature in Thirteenth Century 38 Relapse into Barbarism 38 No Improvement in Fourteenth Century—Richard of Bury 39 Library formed by Charles V. at Paris 39 Some Improvement in Italy during Thirteenth Century 40 Catholicon of Balbi 40 Imperfection of early Dictionaries 40 Restoration of Letters due to Petrarch 40 Character of his Style 41 His Latin Poetry 41 John of Ravenna 41 Gasparin of Barziza 42 CHAPTER II. ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1400 TO 1440. Zeal for Classical Literature in Italy 42 Poggio Bracciolini 42 Latin Style of that Age indifferent 43 Gasparin of Barziza 43 Merits of his Style 43 Victorin of Feltre 44 Leonard Aretin 44 Revival of Greek Language in Italy 44 Early Greek Scholars of Europe 44 Under Charlemagne and his Successors 45 In the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries 45 In the Twelfth 46 In the Thirteenth 46 Little Appearance of it in the Fourteenth Century 47 Some Traces of Greek in Italy 47 Corruption of Greek Language itself 47 Character of Byzantine Literature 48 Petrarch and Boccace learn Greek 48 Few acquainted with the Language in their Time 49 It is taught by Chrysoloras about 1395 49 His Disciples 49 Translations from Greek into Latin 50 Public Encouragement delayed 51 But fully accorded before 1440 51 Emigration of learned Greeks to Italy 52 Causes of Enthusiasm for Antiquity in Italy 52 Advanced State of Society 52 Exclusive Study of Antiquity 53 Classical Learning in France low 53 Much more so in England 53 Library of Duke of Gloucester 54 Gerard Groot’s College at Deventer 54 Physical Sciences in Middle Ages 55 Arabian Numerals and Method 55 Proofs of them in Thirteenth Century 56 Mathematical Treatises 56 Roger Bacon 57 His Resemblance to Lord Bacon 57 English Mathematicians of Fourteenth Century 57 Astronomy 58 Alchemy 58 Medicine 58 Anatomy 58 Encyclopædic Works of Middle Ages 58 Vincent of Beauvais 59 Berchorius 59 Spanish Ballads 59 Metres of Spanish Poetry 60 Consonant and assonant Rhymes 60 Nature of the Glosa 61 The Cancionero General 61 Bouterwek’s Character of Spanish Songs 61 John II. 62 Poets of his Court 62 Charles, Duke of Orleans 62 English Poetry 62 Lydgate 63 James I. of Scotland 63 Restoration of Classical Learning due to Italy 63 Character of Classical Poetry lost in Middle Ages 64 New School of Criticism in Modern Languages 64 Effect of Chivalry on Poetry 64 Effect of Gallantry towards Women 64 Its probable Origin 64 It is shown in old Teutonic Poetry; but appears in the Stories of Arthur 65 Romances of Chivalry of two Kinds 65 Effect of Difference of Religion upon Poetry 66 General Tone of Romance 66 Popular Moral Fictions 66 Exclusion of Politics from Literature 67 Religious Opinions 67 Attacks on the Church 67 Three Lines of Religious Opinions in Fifteenth Century 67 Treatise de Imitatione Christi 68 Scepticism—Defences of Christianity 69 Raimond de Sebonde 69 His Views misunderstood 69 His real Object 70 Nature of his Arguments 70 CHAPTER III. ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1440 TO THE CLOSE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. The year 1440 not chosen as an Epoch 71 Continual Progress of Learning 71 Nicolas V. 71 Justice due to his Character 72 Poggio on the Ruins of Rome 72 Account of the East, by Conti 72 Laurentius Valla 72 His Attack on the Court of Rome 72 His Treatise on the Latin Language 73 Its Defects 73 Heeren’s Praise of it 73 Valla’s Annotations on the New Testament 73 Fresh Arrival of Greeks in Italy 74 Platonists and Aristotelians 74 Their Controversy 74 Marsilius Ficinus 75 Invention of Printing 75 Block Books 75 Gutenberg and Costar’s Claims 75 Progress of the Invention 76 First printed Bible 76 Beauty of the Book 77 Early printed Sheets 77 Psalter of 1547—Other early Books 77 Bible of Pfister 77 Greek first taught at Paris 78 Leave unwillingly granted 78 Purbach—his Mathematical Discoveries 78 Other Mathematicians 78 Progress of Printing in Germany 79 Introduced into France 79 Caxton’s first Works 79 Printing exercised in Italy 79 Lorenzo de’ Medici 80 Italian Poetry of Fifteenth Century 80 Italian Prose of same Age 80 Giostra of Politian 80 Paul II. persecutes the Learned 81 Mathias Corvinus 81 His Library 81 Slight Signs of Literature in England 81 Paston Letters 82 Low Condition of Public Libraries 83 Rowley 83 Clotilde de Surville 83 Number of Books printed in Italy 83 First Greek printed 84 Study of Antiquities 84 Works on that Subject 84 Publications in Germany 85 In France 85 In England, by Caxton 85 In Spain 85 Translations of Scripture 85 Revival of Literature in Spain 86 Character of Labrixa 86 Library of Lorenzo 87 Classics corrected and explained 87 Character of Lorenzo 87 Prospect from his Villa at Fiesole 87 Platonic Academy 88 Disputationes Camaldulenses of Landino 88 Philosophical Dialogues 89 Paulus Cortesius 89 Schools in Germany 89 Study of Greek at Paris 91 Controversy of Realists and Nominalists 91 Scotus 91 Ockham 92 Nominalists in University of Paris 92 Low State of Learning in England 92 Mathematics 93 Regiomontanus 93 Arts of Delineation 93 Maps 94 Geography 94 Greek printed in Italy 94 Hebrew printed 95 Miscellanies of Politian 95 Their Character, by Heeren 95 His Version of Herodian 96 Cornucopia of Perotti 96 Latin Poetry of Politian 96 Italian Poetry of Lorenzo 97 Pulci 97 Character of Morgante Maggiore 97 Platonic Theology of Ficinus 98 Doctrine of Averroes on the Soul 98 Opposed by Ficinus 99 Desire of Man to explore Mysteries 99 Various Methods employed 99 Reason and Inspiration 99 Extended Inferences from Sacred Books 99 Confidence in Traditions 100 Confidence in Individuals as inspired 100 Jewish Cabbala 100 Picus of Mirandola 101 His Credulity in the Cabbala 101 His Literary Performances 102 State of Learning in Germany 102 Agricola 103 Renish Academy 103 Reuchlin 104 French Language and Poetry 104 European Drama 104 Latin 104 Orfeo of Politian 105 Origin of Dramatic Mysteries 105 Their early Stage 105 Extant English Mysteries 105 First French Theatre 106 Theatrical Machinery 107 Italian Religious Dramas 107 Moralities 107 Farces 107 Mathematical Works 107 Leo Baptista Alberti 108 Lionardo da Vinci 108 Aldine Greek Editions 109 Decline of Learning in Italy 110 Hermolaus Barbarus 111 Mantuan 111 Pontanus 111 Neapolitan Academy 112 Boiardo 112 Francesco Bello 113 Italian Poetry near the End of the Century 113 Progress of Learning in France and Germany 113 Erasmus—his Diligence 114 Budæus—his early Studies 114 Latin not well written in France 115 Dawn of Greek Learning in England 115 Erasmus comes to England 116 He publishes his Adages 116 Romantic Ballads of Spain 116 Pastoral Romances 117 Portuguese Lyric Poetry 117 German popular Books 117 Historical Works 118 Philip de Comines 118 Algebra 118 Events from 1490 to 1500 119 Close of Fifteenth Century 119 Its Literature nearly neglected 119 Summary of its Acquisitions 119 Their Imperfection 120 Number of Books printed 120 Advantages already reaped from Printing 120 Trade of Bookselling 121 Books sold by Printers 121 Price of Books 122 Form of Books 122 Exclusive Privileges 122 Power of Universities over Bookselling 123 Restraints on Sale of Printed Books 124 Effect of Printing on the Reformation 124 CHAPTER IV. ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1500 TO 1520. Decline of Learning in Italy 125 Press of Aldus 125 His Academy 126 Dictionary of Calepio 126 Books printed in Germany 126 First Greek Press at Paris 126 Early Studies of Melanchthon 127 Learning in England 127 Erasmus and Budæus 128 Study of Eastern Languages 128 Dramatic Works 128 Calisto and Melibœa 128 Its Character 129 Juan de la Enzina 129 Arcadia of Sanazzaro 129 Asolani of Bembo 130 Dunbar 130 Anatomy of Zerbi 130 Voyages of Cadamosto 130 Leo X., his Patronage of Letters 131 Roman Gymnasium 131 Latin Poetry 132 Italian Tragedy 132 Sophonisba of Trissino 132 Rosmunda of Rucellai 132 Comedies of Ariosto 132 Books printed in Italy 133 Cælius Rhodiginus 133 Greek printed in France and Germany 133 Greek Scholars in these Countries 134 College at Alcala and Louvain 134 Latin Style in France 135 Greek Scholars in England 135 Mode of Teaching in Schools 136 Few Classical Works printed here 137 State of Learning in Scotland 137 Utopia of More 137 Inconsistency in his Opinions 138 Learning restored in France 138 Jealousy of Erasmus and Budæus 138 Character of Erasmus 139 His Adages severe on Kings 139 Instances in illustration 140 His Greek Testament 142 Patrons of Letters in Germany 142 Resistance to Learning 143 Unpopularity of the Monks 145 The Book excites Odium 145 Erasmus attacks the Monks 145 Their Contention with Reuchlin 145 Origin of the Reformation 146 Popularity of Luther 147 Simultaneous Reform by Zwingle 147 Reformation prepared beforehand 147 Dangerous Tenets of Luther 148 Real Explanation of them 149 Orlando Furioso 150 Its Popularity 150 Want of Seriousness 150 A Continuation of Boiardo 150 In some Points inferior 151 Beauties of its Style 151 Accompanied with Faults 151 Its Place as a Poem 152 Amadis de Gaul 152 Gringore 152 Hans Sachs 152 Stephen Hawes 153 Change in English Language 153 Skelton 154 Oriental Languages 154 Pomponatius 155 Raymond Lully 155 His Method 155 Peter Martyr’s Epistles 156 CHAPTER V. HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550. Superiority of Italy in Taste 157 Admiration of Antiquity 158 Sadolet 158 Bembo 159 Ciceronianus of Erasmus 159 Scaliger’s Invective against it 160 Editions of Cicero 160 Alexander ab Alexandro 160 Works on Roman Antiquities 161 Greek less Studied in Italy 161 Schools of Classical Learning 161 Budæus—his Commentaries on Greek 161 Their Character 162 Greek Grammars and Lexicons 162 Editions of Greek Authors 163 Latin Thesaurus of R. Stephens 163 Progress of Learning in France 164 Learning in Spain 165 Effects of Reformation on Learning 165 Sturm’s Account of German Schools 165 Learning in Germany 166 In England—Linacre 166 Lectures in the Universities 166 Greek perhaps Taught to Boys 167 Teaching of Smith at Cambridge 167 Succeeded by Cheke 168 Ascham’s Character of Cambridge 168 Wood’s Account of Oxford 168 Education of Edward and his Sisters 169 The Progress of Learning is still slow 169 Want of Books and Public Libraries 169 Destruction of Monasteries no Injury to Learning 169 Ravisius Textor 170 Conrad Gesner 170 CHAPTER VI. HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550. Progress of the Reformation 171 Interference of Civil Power 171 Excitement of Revolutionary Spirit 172 Growth of Fanaticism 172 Differences of Luther and Zwingle 172 Confession of Augsburg 173 Conduct of Erasmus 173 Estimate of it 174 His Controversy with Luther 174 Character of his Epistles 176 His Alienation from the Reformers increases 176 Appeal of the Reformers to the Ignorant 176 Parallel of those Times with the Present 177 Calvin 177 His Institutes 177 Increased Differences among Reformers 178 Reformed Tenets spread in England 178 In Italy 178 Italian Heterodoxy 179 Its Progress in the Literary Classes 180 Servetus 180 Arianism in Italy 181 Protestants in Spain and Low Countries 181 Order of Jesuits 181 Their Popularity 181 Council of Trent 182 Its Chief Difficulties 182 Character of Luther 182 Theological Writings—Erasmus 183 Melanchthon—Romish Writers 183 This Literature nearly forgotten 184 Sermons 184 Spirit of the Reformation 184 Limits of Private Judgment 185 Passions instrumental in Reformation 185 Establishment of new Dogmatism 186 Editions of Scripture 186 Translations of Scripture 186 In English 187 In Italy and Low Countries 187 Latin Translations 187 French Translations 188 CHAPTER VII. HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE, MORAL, AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY, AND OF JURISPRUDENCE, IN EUROPE, FROM 1520 TO 1550. Logic included under this head 188 Slow Defeat of Scholastic Philosophy 188 It is sustained by the Universities and Regulars 188 Commentators on Aristotle 188 Attack of Vives on Scholastics 189 Contempt of them in England 189 Veneration for Aristotle 189 Melanchthon countenances him 189 His own Philosophical Treatises 190 Aristotelians of Italy 190 University of Paris 190 New Logic of Ramus 190 It meets with unfair treatment 191 Its Merits and Character 191 Buhle’s account of it 191 Paracelsus 191 His Impostures 192 And Extravagancies 192 Cornelius Agrippa 192 His pretended Philosophy 193 His Sceptical Treatise 193 Cardan 193 Influence of Moral Writers 194 Cortegiano of Castiglione 194 Marco Aurelio of Guevara 194 His Menosprecio di Corte 194 Perez d’Oliva 195 Ethical Writings of Erasmus and Melanchthon 195 Sir T. Elyot’s Governor 195 Severity of Education 196 He seems to avoid Politics 196 Nicholas Machiavel 196 His motives in writing the Prince 197 Some of his Rules not immoral 197 But many dangerous 197 Its only Palliation 198 His Discourses on Livy 198 Their leading Principles 198 Their Use and Influence 199 His History of Florence 199 Treatises on Venetian Government 199 Calvin’s Political Principles 199 Jurisprudence confined to Roman Law 200 The Laws not well arranged 200 Adoption of the entire System 200 Utility of General Learning to Lawyers 200 Alciati—his Reform of Law 201 Opposition to him 201 Agustino 201 CHAPTER VIII. HISTORY OF THE LITERATURE OF TASTE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550. Poetry of Bembo 201 Its Beauties and Defects 202 Character of Italian Poetry 202 Alamanni 202 Vittoria Colonna 202 Satires of Ariosto and Alamanni 203 Alamanni 203 Rucellai 203 Trissino 203 Berni 203 Spanish Poets 204 Boscan and Garcilasso 204 Mendoza 204 Saa di Miranda 205 Ribeyro 205 French Poetry 205 Marot 206 Its Metrical Structure 206 German Poetry 206 Hans Sachs 206 German Hymn 206 Theuerdanks of Pfintzing 206 English Poetry—Lyndsay 206 Wyatt and Surrey 207 Dr. Nott’s Character of them 207 Perhaps rather exaggerated 208 Surrey improves our versification 208 Introduces Blank Verse 208 Dr. Nott’s Hypothesis as to his Metre 208 It seems too extensive 209 Politeness of Wyatt and Surrey 209 Latin Poetry 210 Sannazarius 210 Vida 210 Fracastorius 210 Latin Verse not to be disdained 210 Other Latin Poets in Italy 211 In Germany 211 Italian Comedy 211 Machiavel 211 Aretin 211 Tragedy 212 Sperone 212 Cinthio 212 Spanish Drama 212 Torres Naharro 212 Lope de Rueda 212 Gil Vicente 213 Mysteries and Moralities in France 213 German Theatre—Hans Sachs 213 Moralities and Similar Plays in England 214 They are turned to religious Satire 214 Latin Plays 214 First English Comedy 215 Romances of Chivalry 215 Novels 215 Rabelais 216 Contest of Latin and Italian Languages 216 Influence of Bembo in this 217 Apology for Latinists 217 Character of the Controversy 217 Life of Bembo 217 Character of Italian and Spanish Style 218 English Writers 218 More 218 Ascham 218 Italian Criticism 218 Bembo 218 Grammarians and Critics in France 219 Orthography of Meigret 219 Cox’s Art of Rhetoric 219 CHAPTER IX. ON THE SCIENTIFIC AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550. Geometrical Treatises 220 Fernel Rhœticus 220 Cardan and Tartaglia 220 Cubic Equations 220 Beauty of the Discovery 221 Cardan’s other Discoveries 221 Imperfections of Algebraic Language 222 Copernicus 222 Revival of Greek Medicine 223 Linacre and other Physicians 223 Medical Innovators 224 Paracelsus 224 Anatomy 224 Berenger 224 Vesalius 224 Portal’s Account of him 225 His Human Dissections 225 Fate of Vesalius 225 Other Anatomists 225 Imperfection of the Science 225 Botany—Botanical Gardens 226 Ruel 226 Fuchs 226 Matthioli 226 Low State of Zoology 226 Agricola 227 Hebrew 227 Elias Levita—Pellican 227 Arabic and Oriental Literature 227 Geography of Grynæus 228 Apianus 228 Munster 228 Voyages 228 Oviedo 228 Historical Works 228 Italian Academies 229 They pay regard to the Language 229 Their fondness for Petrarch 229 They become numerous 229 Their Distinctions 230 Evils connected with them 230 They succeed less in Germany 230 Libraries 230 CHAPTER X. HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1550 TO 1600. Progress of Philology 231 First Editions of Classics 231 Change in Character of Learning 232 Cultivation of Greek 232 Principal Scholars—Turnebus 232 Petrus Victorius 233 Muretus 233 Gruter’s Thesaurus Criticus 234 Editions of Greek and Latin Authors 235 Tacitus of Lipsius 235 Horace of Lambinus 235 Of Cruquius 236 Henry Stephens 236 Lexicon of Constantin 237 Thesaurus of Stephens 237 Abridged by Scapula 238 Hellenismus of Caninius 239 Vergara’s Grammar 239 Grammars of Ramus and Sylburgius 239 Camerarius—Canter—Robortellus 240 Editions by Sylburgius 241 Neander 241 Gesner 241 Decline of Taste in Germany 242 German Learning 242 Greek Verses of Rhodomanu 242 Learning Declines 243 Except in Catholic Germany 243 Philological Works of Stephens 243 Style of Lipsius 244 Minerva of Sanctius 244 Orations of Muretus 244 Panegyric of Ruhnkenius 244 Defects of his Style 245 Epistles of Manutius 245 Care of the Italian Latinists 245 Perpinianus—Osorius—Maphœus 246 Buchanan—Haddon 246 Sigonius, De Consolatione 246 Decline of Taste and Learning in Italy 247 Joseph Scaliger 247 Isaac Casaubon 248 General Result 249 Learning in England under Edward and Mary 249 Revival under Elizabeth 249 Greek Lectures at Cambridge 250 Few Greek Editions in England 250 School Books enumerated 250 Greek taught in Schools 251 Greek better known after 1580 251 Editions of Greek 252 And of Latin Classics 252 Learning lower than in Spain 252 Improvement at the End of the Century. 253 Learning in Scotland 253 Latin little used in Writing 253 Early Works on Antiquities 254 P. Manutius on Roman Laws 254 Manutius, De Civitate 254 Panvinius—Sigonius 255 Gruchius 255 Sigonius on Athenian Polity 256 Patrizzi and Lipsius on Roman Militia 256 Lipsius and other Antiquaries 256 Saville on Roman Militia 257 Numismatics 257 Mythology 257 Scaliger’s Chronology 258 Julian Period 258 CHAPTER XI. HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1550 TO 1600. Diet of Augsburg in 1555 259 Progress of Protestantism 259 Its Causes 260 Wavering of Catholic Princes 260 Extinguished in Italy and Spain 260 Reaction of Catholicity 260 Especially in Germany 261 Discipline of the Clergy 261 Influence of Jesuits 261 Their Progress 262 Their Colleges 262 Jesuit Seminary at Rome 262 Patronage of Gregory XIII. 262 Conversions in Germany and France 263 Causes of this Reaction 263 A rigid Party in the Church 264 Its Efforts at Trent 264 No Compromise in Doctrine 265 Consultation of Cassander 265 Bigotry of Protestant Churches 266 Tenets of Melanchthon 266 A Party hostile to him 267 Form of Concord, 1576 267 Controversy raised by Baius 267 Treatise of Molina on Free will 268 Protestant Tenets 268 Trinitarian Controversy 268 Religious Intolerance 270 Castalio 270 Answered by Beza 271 Aconcio 271 Minus Celsus, Koornhert 271 Decline of Protestantism 272 Desertion of Lipsius 272 Jewell’s Apology 272 English Theologians 272 Bellarmin 273 Topics of Controversy changed 273 It turns on Papal Power 274 This upheld by the Jesuits 274 Claim to depose Princes 274 Bull against Elizabeth 274 And Henry IV. 275 Deposing Power owned in Spain 275 Asserted by Bellarmin 275 Methods of Theological Doctrine 275 Loci Communes 275 In the Protestant and Catholic Church 276 Catharin 276 Critical and Expository Writings 276 Ecclesiastical Historians 277 Le Clerc’s Character of them 277 Deistical Writers 277 Wierus, De Præstigiis 278 Scot on Witchcraft 278 Authenticity of Vulgate 278 Latin Versions and Editions by Catholics 278 By Protestants 279 Versions into Modern Languages 279 CHAPTER XII. HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1550 TO 1600. Predominance of Aristotelian Philosophy 279 Scholastic and genuine Aristotelians 280 The former class little remembered 280 The others not much better known 280 Schools of Pisa and Padua 280 Cesalpini 280 Sketch of his System 280 Cremonini 281 Opponents of Aristotle 281 Patrizzi 281 System of Telesio 281 Jordano Bruno 282 His Italian Works—Cena de li Ceneri 282 Della Causa, Principio ed Uno 282 Pantheism of Bruno 283 Bruno’s other Writings 284 General Character of his Philosophy 285 Sceptical Theory of Sanchez 286 Logic of Aconcio 286 Nizolius on the Principles of Philosophy 286 Margarita Antoniana of Pereira 287 Logic of Ramus—its Success 288 CHAPTER XIII. HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE FROM 1550 TO 1600. Soto, De Justitia 289 Hooker 290 His Theory of Natural Law 290 Doubts felt by others 290 Essays of Montaigne 290 Their Characteristics 290 Writers on Morals in Italy 293 In England 293 Bacon’s Essays 293 Number of Political Writers 294 Oppression of Governments 294 And Spirit generated by it 294 Derived from Classic History 294 From their own and the Jewish 294 Franco Gallia of Hossoman 295 Vindiciæ of Languet 295 Contr’Un of Boetie 295 Buchanan, De Jure Regni 296 Poynet, on Politique Power 296 Its liberal Theory 296 Argues for Tyrannicide 297 The Tenets of Parties swayed by Circumstances 297 Similar Tenets among the Leaguers 298 Rose on the Authority of Christian States over Kings 298 Treatise of Boucher in the same Spirit 299 Answered by Barclay 299 The Jesuits adopt these Tenets 299 Mariana, De Rege 299 Popular Theories in England 300 Hooker 300 Political Memoirs 301 La Noue 301 Lipsius 301 Botero 301 His Remarks on Population 301 Paruta 302 Bodin 302 Analysis of his Treatise called the Republic 302 Authority of Heads of Families 302 Domestic Servitude 303 Origin of Commonwealths 303 Privileges of Citizens 303 Nature of Sovereign Power 304 Forms of Government 304 Despotism and Monarchy 304 Aristocracy 305 Senates and Councils of State 305 Duties of Magistrates 305 Corporations 305 Slaves, part of the State 305 Rise and Fall of States 306 Causes of Revolution 306 Astrological Fancies of Bodin 306 Danger of sudden Changes 307 Judicial Power of the Sovereign 307 Toleration of Religions 307 Influence of Climate on Government 307 Means of obviating Inequality 308 Confiscations—Rewards 308 Fortresses 308 Necessity of Good Faith 309 Census of Property 309 Public Revenues 309 Taxation 309 Adulteration of Coin 310 Superiority of Monarchy 310 Conclusion of the Work 310 Bodin compared with Aristotle and Machiavel 310 And with Montesquieu 310 Golden Age of Jurisprudence 311 Cujacius 311 Eulogies bestowed upon him 311 Cujacius, an Interpreter of Law rather than a Lawyer 312 French Lawyers below Cujacius—Govca and others 312 Opponents of the Roman Law 313 Faber of Savoy 313 Anti-Tribonianus of Hottoman 313 Civil Law not countenanced in France 314 Turamini 314 Cau Law 314 Law of Nations; its early State 314 Francis a Victoria 314 His Opinions on Public Law 315 Ayala, on the Rights of War 315 Albericus Gentilis on Embassies 316 His Treatise on the Rights of War 317 CHAPTER XIV. HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1550 TO 1600. General Character of Italian Poets in this Age 318 Their usual Faults 318 Their Beauties 318 Character given by Muratori 318 Poetry of Casa 318 Of Costanzo 319 Baldi 319 Caro 319 Odes of Celio Magus 319 Coldness of the Amatory Sonnets 320 Studied Imitation of Petrarch 320 Their Fondness for Description 320 Judgment of Italian Critics 320 Bernardino Rota 320 Gaspara Stampa; her Love for Collalto 321 Is ill-requited 322 Her Second Love 322 Style of Gaspara Stampa 322 La Nautica of Baldi 322 Amadigi of Bernardo Tasso 323 Satirical and burlesque Poetry; Aretin 323 Other burlesque Writers 324 Attempts at Latin Metres 324 Poetical Translations 324 Torquato Tasso 324 The Jerusalem excellent in Choice of Subject 324 Superior to Homer and Virgil in some Points 324 Its Characters 325 Excellence of its Style 325 Some Faults in it 325 Defects of the Poem 326 It indicates the peculiar Genius of Tasso 326 Tasso compared to Virgil 326 To Ariosto 326 To the Bolognese Painters 327 Poetry Cultivated under Charles and Philip 327