Introduction to Japanese Architecture text and photographs by David and Michiko Young illustrations by Tan Hong Yew PERIPLUS Published by Periplus Editions (HI<) Ltd Distributors Text© 2004 David and Michiko Young japan: Tuttle Publishing, Yaekari Building, 3F, Illustrations © 2004 Tan Hong Yew 5-4-12 Osaki, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 141-0032 Tel: (813) 5437 0171; Fax: (813) 5437 0755 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be E-mail: [email protected] reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, magnetic Asia Pacific: Berkeley Books Pte Ltd, tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or other- 61 Tai Seng Avenue #02-12, Singapore 534167 wise, without prior permission of the publisher. Tel: (65) 6280 1330; Fax: (65) 6280 6290 E-mail: [email protected] ISBN: 978-1-4629-0809-7 (ebook) North America, Latin America, and Europe: Printed in Singapore Tuttle Publishing, 364 Innovation Drive, North Clarendon, VT 05759-9436 09 08 07 06 OS 04 Tel: (802) 773 8930; Fax: (802) 773 6993 654321 E-mail: [email protected] Photo Credits Akita City, page 125 (No.4); Murata Noboru, pages 91, 103; Nara Bunkazai Kenkyujo, page 28; National Museum of Japanese History, page 54; Rekishi Kaid6 Promotional Council, page 124 (bottom); Rinn6ji Temple at Nikko, page 98 (top); SANYO Electric Co. Ltd., Japan, page 125 (No. 1); Shiraoi Ainu Museum, pages 24, 25; Suzuki Toshikatsu, pages 118, 119, 120 (except left), 121; Luca Tettoni, page 120 (left); Toshitaka Morita, page 87; Michael Yamashita, pages 7, 11, 37, 50-51, 84, 126; Yoshinori Okayama, page 86. Acknowledgements We are especially indebted to Kansai Gaidai University, which has supported our research in a variety of ways and to Professor Kataoka Osamu who provided us with recent findings on pre- historic architecture. Other individuals who provided special assistance are Yoshimoto Norihito, Yoshinori Okayama, and Teresa Hurst. Institutions that were especially helpful are Ainu Minzoku Hakubutsukan (The Ainu Museum) and the Kokuritsu Rekishi Minzoku Hakubutsukan (National Museum of Japanese History). We would also like to thank the Imperial Household Agencies in Kyoto and Tokyo, the Izumi City Board of Education, Jingu Ch6kokan (the museum affiliated with Ise Jingu), the Ise Shrine Office, Mur6ji Temple, T6sh6gu at Nikko, the Rekishi Kaid6 Promotional Council, Akita City, SANYO Electric Co. Ltd., and the many other institutions that provided us with information and pictures. Two books in Japanese that have been of special help are Nihon Kenchiku no Mikata (How to Observe Japanese Architecture) by Miyamoto Kenji and Shufuku no TechO (Restoration Notes) by Bunkazai Kenzobutsu Hozon Gijutsu Kyokai (Japanese Association for the Conservation of Architectural Monuments). We are indebted to Murata Noboru, Suzuki Toshikatsu, Luca Tectoni, Toshitaka Morita, and Michael Yamashita, for granting permission to use their work to supplement photographs taken by the authors. Finally, we are grateful for the untiring assistance of our editor, Noor Azlina Yunus. Contents Development of Traditional Feudal Period Temples 66 Architecture 4 The |chijodani Historic Site 68 Basic Principles of Japanese Castles and Castle Culture 72 Architecture 6 Centralized Authority 76 Pre-Buddhist Cultures 12 Edo: The Feudal Capital 78 Reconstructed Jomon and Yayoi Takayama: An Administrative Town 80 Settlements 14 Kanazawa: A Castle Town 82 The Grand Shrines at Ise 18 Ogimachi: A Farm Village 84 Tomb Mounds 22 Minka: Rural Houses 88 Ainu Buildings 24 Kurashiki: A Rice Merchant Town 92 The Important Role of Storehouses 94 Influences from Korea and China 26 The Mausoleums at NikkQ 96 Heijokyo: An Early Capital 28 Sukiya Style Villas and Palaces 100 Horyuji: The Oldest Extant Temple 30 Theaters and Sumo Rings 104 Nara Period Temples 32 Post-Buddhist Shinto Shrines 34 Japan in Transition 108 Pseudo-Western and Developing a Cultural Identity 36 Blended Styles 110 Palaces and Mansions 40 Residential Architecture in the Mountain Temples 44 Traditional Style 112 Paradise Halls 48 |nns in the Traditional Style 116 Merging of Shinto and Buddhist Temples and Shrines in the Architecture 52 Traditional Style 118 The Way of the Warrior 54 Modern Architecture 122 New Principles in Residential Architecture 56 Glossary 127 Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji Temples 58 The Way of Tea 62 Bibliography 128 Development of Traditional Architecture Japanese traditional architecture can be organized into several major genealogical groups on the basis of historical origins and stylistic influences. The most important group is composed primarily of palace, residential, and teahouse styles originating in prehistoric raised structures. Other major groups are commoner residences that evolved from prehistoric pit structures, Buddhist temples, Shinto shrines, theaters, and castles. The diagram below has been simplified to emphasize major trends. HISTORICAL PERIODS JOMON Prehistoric Prehistoric 10000-300 BCE Pit Structures ~ Rai"d Strootu,," 1 Kum 1 Prehistoric Chiefs' Residences YAYOI 300 BCE-300 CE Ground-level Structures with Walls TOMB MOUND 1 /~ 300-71 0 (overlaps with later periods) ASUKA Farm- Town Eady Hi"Or Palaw 538-645 houses Houses HAKUHO 645-710 \2 NARA 710-794 Shin den Mansions Kyoto HEIAN 794-1185 I Imperial t KAMAKURA Palace 1185-1333 M13U3R3O-1M57A3C HI Sh om' ~ Sho'm St y1 e BU l'l d'm gs Kinkta kuji t ~ Lookout tower Teahouses I G' k k .. at Yoshinogari, ~ ill a ul' reconstructed T,:~~~,~sukiya ~ Yayoi village, 1 MOMOYAMA Kyushu. Style R"id,nc" 1573-1600 Katsura EDO Detached 1600-1868 Palace t MEIJI Early Modern Residences Tokyo 1868-1912 Imperial Palace Togudo at Ginkakuji Temple, Kyoto. 4 TEXT SECTIONS PRE-BUDDHIST CULTURES Yasaka Shrine, Kyoto. TOdaiji Temple, Nara. -----':---).~Early Shrines Chinese Palace Compounds 1 INFLUENCES FROM /T~ KOREA AND CHINA Post- Ryobu ~ Mountain Paradise Halls Way6 Style DEVELOPING A CULTURAL Buddhist Shinto Temples ~Temples IDENTITY Shrines Zen Style ---).~ Eclectic Style 0( Great Buddha THE WAY OF THE WARRIOR Style Noh Bunraku Theater Theater Castles Kabuki CENTRALIZED AUTHORITY Theater JAPAN IN TRANSITION Osaka Castle, Osaka. 5 Basic Principles of Japanese Architecture Many architectural styles have developed over the course of Japan's long history. Nevertheless, there are several basic principles that can be found in the interesting but complex story told in the following pages. Some of these basic principles describe how core values have influenced the choice of building materials, tech­ niques, and designs. Other principles emphasize cultural processes such as the relation between restraint and exuberance and a passion for preserving the past. Preference for Natural Materials and Restraint and Exuberance Settings There is, however, another side to Japanese Traditional Japanese architecture is character- culture that is not as well known—the appre- ized by a preference for natural materials, in ciation of exuberant colors and complexity of particular wood. Since wood can breathe, it is form—in contrast to the restrained tradition suitable for the Japanese climate. Wood absorbs with its simplicity and asymmetry. This is exem- humidity in the wet months and releases mois- plified by Chinese style shrines and temples and ture when the air is dry. With proper care and the mausoleums at Nikko. Such buildings are periodic repairs, traditional post-and-beam characterized by a strong contrast between structures can last as long as 1,000 years. Other vermilion posts and white plastered walls, elabo- The Japanese love of wood is illustrated in the Zenshitsu Hall natural building materials are reeds, bark, and rate decorations, curved lines, symmetry, and at Gangoji Temple in Nara City. clay used for roofing, and stones used for sup- the imposition of order upon nature. Both the porting pillars, surfacing building platforms, restrained and exuberant traditions are favored and holding down board roofs. Associated with at different times and places, depending upon the use of natural materials is a preference for the occasion. For example, ceremonial buildings straight lines, asymmetry, simplicity of design, are designed to impress and thus tend to be and understatement, exemplified by pre- more exuberant than residential architecture, Buddhist Shinto shrines, farmhouses, teahouses, where the goal is to provide a tasteful and and tasteful contemporary interiors. relaxed atmosphere. There is also a preference for natural set- tings. After Buddhism was introduced from the Attention to Detail continent, it was not long before the symmetry Regardless of whether circumstances call for of Chinese temple compounds gave way to restraint or exuberance, Japanese architects, mountain temples with an asymmetrical layout. builders, artists, and craftspeople pay a great deal of attention to detail. Even when the over- all effect of a building is simple, particularly when it is viewed from a distance, a close-up inspection of the building often reveals numer- ous details that add interest. Attention to detail applies to both technological and design fea- tures. For example, at the technological level, the intricate joinery of a traditional building allowed it to be assembled without nails and to The wood carving on the bottom of the door, as well as the metal- be disassembled periodically for repairs. At the work which graces an adjacent design level, the interlocking eave supports of a pillar, both part of a gate at Buddhist temple can be quite complicated. The Higashi Honganji Temple in basic pattern of the brackets, however, is repeat- Kyoto, illustrate the attention ed over and over again to create a visual rhythm to detail that is typical of many that is well integrated and unified. traditional buildings. 6 Indigenous and Foreign Influences superior cultures. A reaction eventually set in, Twice destroyed by fire, the Japanese society has been inundated at various with the result that foreign influences were Daibutsuden (Great Hall) of times by cultural influences from abroad. In assimilated and made part of the Japanese tradi- Todaiji Temple in Nara is signifi- early times, these influences came primarily from tion. Rather than being overwhelmed by foreign cantly smaller than the original. Still the largest wooden building Korea and China; more recently, mostly from cultures, the Japanese repeatedly have demon- in the world under one roof, it Europe and the United States. In both cases, strated a talent for creatively blending different houses the Great Buddha. the Japanese welcomed foreign influences and influences into new styles that express basic attempted to copy what were perceived to be Japanese values and aesthetic preferences. 7 Preserving the Past In contrast to preservation, remodeling Considerable effort is expended upon preserving involves modifying a structure to bring it into old buildings. This requires dealing with the line with contemporary styles or to enable it advantages and disadvantages of wood, the most to meet the requirements of a revised function. popular building material in traditional Japan. One of the most interesting examples of remod- Wood is easy to work with, it can be fashioned eling is the Higashi Choshuden, a building into a variety of shapes, and it can be used to constructed in the early eighth century (Nara create structures that are earthquake resistant. Period) for government workers at the Heijokyo The main disadvantage of wood is that it rots palace. The building was remodeled as a temple and burns. The Japanese have dealt with this around 760 when it was moved to become the disadvantage in a number of ways. Lecture Hall of Toshodaiji Temple in Nara. In The Main Hall and Meditation Regular renewal involves the custom, associ- the process of remodeling, the slope of the roof Hall at Gangdji Temple. These ated with early Shinto shrines, of periodically was increased and its shape was altered. In beautiful multicolored tiles, made by Korean craftsmen in the Asuka making a more or less exact copy of a building, addition, the bays betweenlhe posts were filled Period, are the oldest tiles in after which the original is torn down. The most in with walls, doors, and windows to make it Japan. The more recent tiles used famous example of regular renewal is Ise Jingu, resemble other temples from that period. The on the adjacent roof slope to the the most important of the early imperial shrines. Lecture Hall was remodeled again in the thir- right are more uniform in color. Regular renewal made it unnecessary to be over- teenth century, giving its current appearance. ly concerned about decay since even posts plant- In restoration, those parts of a structure that ed directly in the ground, a method used in have been damaged by natural forces, such as early shrines, usually survive until a building fire, or that have decayed over time and cannot is dismantled and a new one built. be saved, are replaced. To continue the story of A common practice in traditional Japan was Toshodaiji Temple related above, when it was to recycle materials, such as using lumber and decided in the year 2000 that the Main Hall had tiles from buildings that have collapsed, been to undergo a major restoration, a one-tenth scale partially destroyed by fire or war, or intentional- model was constructed and exact measurements ly torn down, in the construction or repair of were taken of every part of the building. The other buildings. For example, tile was invented hall's main frame consists of 20,000 interlocking in China about 4,000 years ago, but old tiles parts that fit together like a giant jigsaw puzzle, apparently were not reused. In Japan, however, without the use of nails, making it possible to This close-up of a post at Horyuji Temple, near Nara, demonstrates tiles frequently were salvaged from dismantled take the building apart without serious damage. one method of preservation: cut- buildings and used in the construction of new Each piece of wood that is being removed is ting out a rotted piece of wood buildings—often in connection with the frequent given a tag indicating its original location, and and replacing it with a plug made moves of the early capitals. is replicated if necessary. from the same kind of material. Preservation is the practice of taking steps Frequently, there is nothing left to be pre- to save architectural members that are decaying, served, remodeled, or restored. Reconstruction and reinforcing structures that are in danger of collapse. For example, the five-story pagoda at Honmonji Temple in Tokyo was built in 1608. After 400 years, the pagoda had developed a number of serious problems. Eaves brackets were being crushed from the weight of the roof and the bottom portion of many of the posts on Reconstruction of the Main Hall the first level were rotten. Normally all of these at Yakushiji Temple in Nara was parts would be replaced. Because of the fear that completed in 1976, after being the building would lose its cultural value if this destroyed centuries earlier, on the were done, however, the damaged parts were basis of archaeological evidence, injected with carbon fiber. In this way, 70 per- a Heian Period document, and a cent of the damaged parts were preserved. surviving pagoda on the grounds. 8 Examples of Remodeling The Lecture Hall at Toshodaiji refers to the necessity of rebuilding a structure Temple in Nara underwent a that no longer exists, or replacing parts of a move and was successively structure that have been lost. For example, in remodeled. 1967, Yakushiji Temple in Nara embarked upon a large-scale program of reconstructing the Top: A model of the eighth- grandeur of its original Nara Period compound. century Higashi ChoshOden The first project was to restore the Main Hall (government workers' build- that had been destroyed several centuries earlier. ing), at the Heijdko palace. The There were no extant drawings, but fortunately model is located at the Heijo Palace Site Museum in Nara. the temple possessed a Heian Period document that described the original temple complex. On Middle: A model of Higashi the basis of this and other evidence, such as an ChoshOden after it was moved archaeological excavation of the original site, to Toshodaiji Temple in the the Main Hall was back in its original position eighth century and remodeled in 1976, after nine years of intensive effort. as the Lecture Hall. The model is located at the Heijo Palace Site Museum in Nara. Status and Function For many centuries Japan has been a hierarchi- Bottom: The Lecture Hall as it cal society, with considerable emphasis upon appears today. status, authority, and power. Differences in architectural styles provide a material expression of these differences in rank. To some extent, the indicate something about the wealth and power history of Japanese traditional architecture can of their owners or the people who enter. A few be viewed in terms of the contrast between the examples are described below. architecture of the elite and the architecture of A torii is a gate without doors that marks common people. The former is exemplified by the entrance to a Shinto shrine precinct. palaces and villas, as well as the temples and Literally, torii means "where the birds are." shrines patronized by rulers. The latter can be Some scholars have suggested that originally seen in farmhouses and the shop-dwellings of torii may have provided a perch for sacred birds, merchants. These elite and commoner traditions such as the chickens which played a role in a are, however, not immutable. They sometimes famous myth about the sun goddess, the ances- come together, as in the case of a wealthy farmer tress of the imperial line. Regardless of the who includes a formal Shoin style room, associ- origins of torii, their main function is to provide ated with elite dwellings, in his farmhouse. a dividing line between the exterior profane Differences in architectural styles are also world and the interior sacred space where the associated with differences in function. Thus the katni dwell (see pages 18-19). Torii are con- styles of a Shinto shrind and Buddhist temple structed of wood, stone, or metal and are some- can be quite distinct, despite the fact that they times painted red. They vary in size from small both are religious edifices. Here again, however, structures, such as those at the entrance to a the differences should not be overemphasized. neighborhood shrine, to enormous edifices that Shinto and Buddhist architecture often influ- mark the entry to a major Shinto compound. enced each other, and at one time the two reli- After the coming of Buddhism, many major gions were even combined, creating an eclectic shrines adopted a Buddhist style gate, retaining style of religious architecture. one or more torii to mark the approach. The structure that most concretely indicates Early temples in Japan were based on the status and function is the gate. Gates have Chinese custom of enclosing important buildings practical significance in terms of controlling in a fenced compound with a gate on the south. There is no set design for garden access to spaces. They also have symbolic sig- There are three basic types of temple gates. The gates and they can be made with nificance in that their design, size, and materials first, a single-story gate, can be constructed in a variety of different materials. 9