www.semeng.ir This page intentionally left blank www.semeng.ir WILEY ;+. accessible, affordable, PLUS active learning www.wileyplus.com WileyPLUS is an innovative, research-based, online environment for effective teaching and learning. WileyPLUS... ...motivates students with ...supports instructors with confidence-boosting reliable resources that feedback and proof of reinforce course goals progress, 24/7. inside and outside of the classroom. Includes Interactive Textbook & Resources WileyPLUS... Learn More, www.wileyplus.com www.semeng.ir WILEY + P L US www.wileyplus.com ALL THE HELP, RESOURCES, AND PERSONAL SUPPORT YOU AND YOUR STUDENTS NEED! www.wileyplus.com/resources 2-Minute Tutorials and all Student support from an Collaborate with your colleagues, of the resources you & your experienced student user. find a mentor, attend virtual and live students need to get started. events, and view resources. www.WhereFacultyConnect.com Pre-loaded, ready-to-use Technical Support 2-4/7 Your WileyPLUS Account Manager. assignments and presentations. FAQs, online chat, Personal training and Created by subject matter experts. and phone support. implementation support. www.wileyplus.com/support www.semeng.ir Fox and McDonald’s INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS EIGHTH EDITION PHILIP J. PRITCHARD ManhattanCollege With specialcontributionsfrom: JOHN C. LEYLEGIAN ManhattanCollege JOHNWILEY &SONS, INC. www.semeng.ir VICEPRESIDENTANDEXECUTIVEPUBLISHER DonFowley ASSOCIATEPUBLISHER DanielSayre AQUISITIONSEDITOR JenniferWelter EDITORIALASSISTANT AlexandraSpicehandler MARKETINGMANAGER ChristopherRuel MEDIAEDITOR ElenaSantaMaria CREATIVEDIRECTOR HaroldNolan SENIORDESIGNER KevinMurphy SENIORILLUSTRATIONEDITOR AnnaMelhorn PHOTOEDITOR SheenaGoldstein PRODUCTIONMANAGER DorothySinclair SENIORPRODUCTIONEDITOR TrishMcFadden PRODUCTIONMANAGEMENTSERVICES MPSLimited,AMacmillanCompany COVERDESIGN WendyLai COVERPHOTO rsupertramp/iStockphoto CFDsimulationimagecourtesyof Symscapeatwww.symscape.com CHAPTEROPENINGPHOTO Dr.CharlesO’Neill,OklahomaStateUniversity ThisbookwassetinTimesRomanbyMPSLimited,AMacmillanCompanyandprintedandboundbyR.R.Donnelley-JC.Thecover wasprintedbyR.R.Donnelley-JC. Thisbookisprintedonacid-freepaper. 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ISBN-13 9780470547557 ISBN-10 0470547553 PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 www.semeng.ir Contents CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION /1 1.1 Note to Students /3 1.2 Scope of Fluid Mechanics /4 1.3 Definition of a Fluid /4 1.4 Basic Equations /5 1.5 Methods of Analysis /6 System and Control Volume /7 Differential versus Integral Approach /8 Methods of Description /9 1.6 Dimensions and Units /11 Systems of Dimensions /11 Systems of Units /11 Preferred Systems of Units /13 Dimensional Consistency and “Engineering”Equations /14 1.7 Analysis of Experimental Error /15 1.8 Summary /16 Problems /17 CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS /20 2.1 Fluid as aContinuum /21 2.2 Velocity Field /23 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows /24 Timelines, Pathlines,Streaklines, and Streamlines /25 2.3 Stress Field /29 2.4 Viscosity /31 Newtonian Fluid /32 Non-Newtonian Fluids /34 2.5 Surface Tension /36 2.6 Description and Classification of Fluid Motions /38 Viscous and Inviscid Flows /38 Laminar and Turbulent Flows /41 Compressible and IncompressibleFlows /42 Internal and External Flows /43 2.7 Summary and Useful Equations /44 v www.semeng.ir vi Contents References /46 Problems /46 CHAPTER 3 FLUID STATICS /55 3.1 The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics /56 3.2 The Standard Atmosphere /60 3.3 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid /61 Incompressible Liquids: Manometers /61 Gases /66 3.4 Hydraulic Systems /69 3.5 Hydrostatic Force onSubmerged Surfaces /69 Hydrostatic Force ona Plane Submerged Surface /69 Hydrostatic Force ona Curved Submerged Surface /76 *3.6 Buoyancy and Stability /80 3.7 Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion (on theWeb) /W-1 3.8 Summary and Useful Equations /83 References /84 Problems /84 CHAPTER 4 BASIC EQUATIONS IN INTEGRAL FORM FOR A CONTROL VOLUME /96 4.1 Basic Laws for aSystem /98 Conservation of Mass /98 Newton’s Second Law /98 The Angular-Momentum Principle /99 The First Law of Thermodynamics /99 The Second Law of Thermodynamics /99 4.2 Relation of System Derivatives to theControl Volume Formulation /100 Derivation /101 Physical Interpretation /103 4.3 Conservation of Mass /104 Special Cases /105 4.4 Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume /110 *Differential Control Volume Analysis /122 Control Volume Moving with ConstantVelocity /126 4.5 Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Rectilinear Acceleration /128 4.6 Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Arbitrary Acceleration (on theWeb) /W-6 *4.7 The Angular-Momentum Principle /135 Equation for Fixed Control Volume /135 Equation for Rotating Control Volume (on the Web) /W-11 4.8 The First Law of Thermodynamics /139 Rate of Work Done by a Control Volume /140 Control Volume Equation /142 4.9 The Second Law of Thermodynamics /146 4.10 Summary and Useful Equations /147 Problems /149 CHAPTER 5 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID MOTION /171 5.1 Conservation of Mass /172 Rectangular Coordinate System /173 Cylindrical Coordinate System /177 *5.2 Stream Function for Two-DimensionalIncompressible Flow /180 5.3 Motion of a Fluid Particle (Kinematics) /184 Fluid Translation: Acceleration of a Fluid Particle in a Velocity Field /185 Fluid Rotation /190 Fluid Deformation /194 5.4 Momentum Equation /197 Forces Acting on a Fluid Particle /198 Differential Momentum Equation /199 Newtonian Fluid:Navier(cid:1)Stokes Equations /199 www.semeng.ir Contents vii *5.5 Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics /208 The Needfor CFD /208 Applications of CFD /209 Some Basic CFD/Numerical Methods Using a Spreadsheet /210 The Strategyof CFD /215 Discretization Using the Finite-Difference Method /216 Assembly of Discrete System and Application of Boundary Conditions /217 Solution of Discrete System /218 Grid Convergence /219 Dealing with Nonlinearity /220 Direct and Iterative Solvers /221 Iterative Convergence /222 Concluding Remarks /223 5.6 Summary and Useful Equations /224 References /226 Problems /226 CHAPTER 6 INCOMPRESSIBLE INVISCID FLOW /235 6.1 Momentum Equation for Frictionless Flow: Euler’s Equation /237 6.2 Euler’s Equations in Streamline Coordinates /238 6.3 Bernoulli Equation—Integration of Euler’s Equation Along a Streamline for Steady Flow /241 *Derivation Using Streamline Coordinates /241 *Derivation Using Rectangular Coordinates /242 Static, Stagnation, and Dynamic Pressures /244 Applications /247 Cautions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation /252 6.4 The Bernoulli Equation Interpreted as an Energy Equation /253 6.5 Energy Grade Line and Hydraulic Grade Line /257 *6.6 Unsteady Bernoulli Equation: Integration of Euler’s Equation Along a Streamline (on the Web) /W-16 *6.7 Irrotational Flow /259 Bernoulli EquationApplied to IrrotationalFlow /260 Velocity Potential /261 StreamFunctionandVelocityPotentialforTwo-Dimensional,Irrotational,IncompressibleFlow: Laplace’s Equation /262 Elementary Plane Flows /264 Superposition of Elementary Plane Flows /267 6.8 Summary and Useful Equations /276 References /279 Problems /279 CHAPTER 7 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILITUDE /290 7.1 Nondimensionalizing the Basic Differential Equations /292 7.2 Nature of Dimensional Analysis /294 7.3 Buckingham Pi Theorem /296 7.4 Determining the ΠGroups /297 7.5 Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics /303 7.6 Flow Similarity and Model Studies /305 Incomplete Similarity /308 Scaling with Multiple Dependent Parameters /314 Comments on Model Testing /317 7.7 Summary and Useful Equations /318 References /319 Problems /320 CHAPTER 8 INTERNAL INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS FLOW /328 8.1 Introduction /330 Laminar versus Turbulent Flow /330 The Entrance Region /331 PART A. FULLYDEVELOPED LAMINAR FLOW /332 www.semeng.ir viii Contents 8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow betweenInfinite Parallel Plates /332 Both Plates Stationary /332 Upper Plate Moving with ConstantSpeed, U /338 8.3 Fully Developed Laminar Flow in a Pipe /344 PART B. FLOW IN PIPES AND DUCTS /348 8.4 Shear Stress Distribution in Fully DevelopedPipe Flow /349 8.5 Turbulent VelocityProfiles in Fully DevelopedPipe Flow /351 8.6 Energy Considerations in Pipe Flow /353 Kinetic Energy Coefficient /355 Head Loss /355 8.7 Calculation of HeadLoss /357 Major Losses: Friction Factor /357 Minor Losses /361 Pumps, Fans, and Blowers in Fluid Systems /367 Noncircular Ducts /368 8.8 Solution of Pipe Flow Problems /369 Single-Path Systems /370 *Multiple-Path Systems /383 PART C. FLOW MEASUREMENT /387 8.9 Direct Methods /387 8.10 Restriction Flow Meters for Internal Flows /387 The Orifice Plate /391 The Flow Nozzle /391 The Venturi /393 The Laminar Flow Element /394 8.11 Linear Flow Meters /397 8.12 Traversing Methods /399 8.13 Summary and Useful Equations /400 References /402 Problems /403 CHAPTER 9 EXTERNAL INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS FLOW /421 PART A. BOUNDARY LAYERS /423 9.1 The Boundary-Layer Concept /423 9.2 Boundary-Layer Thicknesses /425 9.3 Laminar Flat-Plate Boundary Layer:Exact Solution (on theWeb) /W-19 9.4 Momentum Integral Equation /428 9.5 Use of the Momentum Integral Equation for Flow with Zero Pressure Gradient /433 Laminar Flow /434 Turbulent Flow /439 Summary of Results for Boundary-Layer Flow with Zero Pressure Gradient /441 9.6 Pressure Gradients in Boundary-Layer Flow /442 PART B. FLUID FLOW ABOUT IMMERSED BODIES /445 9.7 Drag /445 Pure Friction Drag: Flow over aFlat Plate Parallel to the Flow /446 Pure Pressure Drag: Flow over a Flat Plate Normal to the Flow /450 Friction and Pressure Drag: Flow over a Sphere and Cylinder /450 Streamlining /456 9.8 Lift /459 9.9 Summary and Useful Equations /474 References /477 Problems /478 CHAPTER 10 FLUID MACHINERY /492 10.1 Introduction and Classification of Fluid Machines /494 Machines for Doing Work on a Fluid /494 Machines for Extracting Work (Power) from a Fluid /496 Scope of Coverage /498 10.2 Turbomachinery Analysis /499 The Angular-Momentum Principle: The Euler Turbomachine Equation /499 Velocity Diagrams /501 www.semeng.ir