Project Editor: Maggie Mogck Marketing Manager: Arline Massey Cover design: Dawn Boyd Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Landis, Wayne G. Introduction to environmental toxicology : impacts of chemicals upon ecological systems, / Wayne G. Landis, Ming-Ho Yu — 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56670-265-8 (alk. paper) 1. Pollution—Environmental aspects. 2. Pollutants—Toxicology. I. Yu, Ming-Ho, 1928-. II. Title. QH545.A1L35 1998 571.9′5--dc21 97-50324 CIP This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. 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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-265-8 Library of Congress Card Number 97-50324 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper Preface We have prepared this text because we had no suitable text for teaching courses introducing environmental toxicology and biochemistry. Portions of this book have already been used to teach an introduction to environmental toxicology and bio- chemical toxicology courses at Western Washington University and changes sug- gested by these students have been incorporated. In general these students have backgrounds in organic chemistry, ecology, calculus, and often biochemistry. We appreciate any feedback and these suggestions will be incorporated into, hopefully, further editions. One of the major difficulties in preparing this book has been the rate of change seen in the field. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency prepared a new Frame- work for Ecological Risk Assessment, nonlinear dynamics has become a major part of ecological theory, and new methods of examining effects at the level of community and ecosystem have been developed during the writing of this book. Now it is two years later and we have made major revisions to this edition in order to keep pace with the field of environmental toxicology. Ecological risk assessment has become the operating paradigm and estrogen disruption has taken on a new importance. The field is more sophisticated in the data analysis tools that it uses and multivariate approaches are becoming more common in the literature. Perhaps the most recent development is the awareness that effects and risks must be seen on a regional scale. Multiple natural and anthropogenic stressors occur to a variety of connected habitats. In order to understand the patterns in the environment that result from the introduction of chemicals, we must take a large scale approach. It will be interesting to see what the next several years bring. The Authors Wayne G. Landis is the Director of The Institute of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry of Huxley College, Western Washington University. He received his undergraduate degree from Wake Forest University and his M.A. and Ph.D. in Zool- ogy from Indiana University. With a background in protozoan genetics and ecology, his research has since concentrated on environmental toxicology. In the past several years, he has published over 80 papers and received two patents on microbial deg- radation. In 1991 he chaired the annual Environ- mental Toxicology and Risk Assessment Symposium sponsored by the American Society for Testing and Materials held in Atlantic City and served as Organizational Chair for the Annual Meeting of the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry held in Seattle. During 1992 he served as President of the Pacific North- west Chapter of the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (PNWSETAC). Dr. Landis also has served on the editorial boards of several journals. Since 1989 he has edited three books on aquatic toxicology and risk assessment published by the American Society for Testing and Materials. Dr. Landis teaches courses in environmental and aquatic toxicology, environ- mental risk assessment, and population biology. His current research includes devel- oping new methods of evaluating environmental toxicity using birds and marine organisms, establishing interspecies structure activity models, evaluation multispe- cies toxicity tests, and the description of how ecosystems respond to stressors. Perhaps the most intriguing avenue of research has been the implementation of chaos and complexity theory to describe the dynamics of ecological systems after toxicant stress. This research has cast a great deal of doubt as to the existence of ecosystem recovery of stability in regards to the dynamics after a stressor event. Ming-Ho Yu received his B.S. degree in Agricul- tural Chemistry from National Taiwan University and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Plant Nutrition and Biochemistry from Utah State University. He did his postdoctoral work at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Canada and Utah State Uni- versity. Dr. Yu was associated with Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University for 27 years, where he taught environ- mental toxicology and related courses until his retirement in 1997. He spent a year of sabbatical leave as Visiting Professor at the Department of Public Health and Hygiene, Iwate Medical University in Morioka, Japan. He also spent a summer at the Institute of Whole Body Metabolism in Nauchi, Japan, where he conducted research as a visiting research scientist. Dr. Yu is a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Chemical Society, American Society for Nutritional Sciences, Interna- tional Society for Fluoride Research, New York Academy of Sciences, and the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. He is the past president of the International Society for Fluoride Research, and is co-editor of Environmental Sci- ences, an international journal on environmental physiology and toxicology pub- lished in Tokyo, Japan. Acknowledgment A major part of this book was written based on the notes and other course materials I used in teaching environmental toxicology-related courses at Western Washington University over the past 20 plus years. I want to thank my former students who took those classes from me. Many of them made critical comments on the course materials I used, and their comments inspired me greatly. Special appreciation is due to my wife, Ervena, for her moral support during the course of preparing the manuscript. M.H.Y. The students of my environmental toxicology courses during the past eight years at Western Washington University have suffered through the notes, figures, and the first edition, and I thank them for participating in this undertaking. Traci Litwiller compiled the methods summaries, April Markiewicz generated the appendix of methods references, and Lisa Holmquist was instrumental in the editing of the first edition. Kyra Freestar was a great help in the preparation of the second edition. Ruth Noellgen let me modify several of the figures from her thesis for this text. My students and colleagues that have used the first edition have contributed numerous suggestions and we have tried to incorporate them into this edition. Linda S. Landis prepared the study questions and provided her unrelenting support of the project in spite of the evenings alone raising two delightful daughters who place this effort in perspective, Margaret and Eva. W.G.L. Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction to Environmental Toxicology Environmental Toxicology as an Interdisciplinary Science A Brief History and Organizations in Environmental Toxicology Legislation Introduction to the Textbook References Chapter 2 A Framework for Environmental Toxicology The Classical Viewpoint for Classifying Toxicological Effects Chemical Physical-Chemical Characteristics Bioaccumulation/Biotransformation/Biodegradation Receptor and the Mode of Action Biochemical and Molecular Effects Physiological and Behavioral Effects Population Parameters Community Effects Ecosystem Effects An Alternative Framework Incorporating Complexity Theory Spatial and Temporal Scales References and Suggested Readings Study Questions Chapter 3 An Introduction to Toxicity Testing The Dose-Response Curve Standard Methods Advantages of Standard Methods Disadvantages of Standard Methods Classification of Toxicity Tests Design Parameters for Single Species Toxicity Tests Exposure Scenarios Test Organisms Comparison of Test Species Statistical Design Parameters Overview of Available Statistical Methods for the Evaluation of Single Species Toxicity Tests Commonly Used Methods for the Calculation of Endpoints Comparison of Calculations of Several Programs for Calculating Probit Analysis Data Analysis for Chronic Toxicity Tests The Design of Multispecies Toxicity Tests The Nature of Multispecies Toxicity Tests Data Analysis and Interpretation of Multispecies Toxicity Tests Univariate Methods Multivariate Methods Visualization Summary of Design Guidelines for Multispecies Toxicity Tests Basic Principles Experimental Design Data Analysis References and Suggested Readings Study Questions Chapter 4 Survey and Review of Typical Toxicity Test Methods Single Species Toxicity Tests Daphnia 48-H Acute Toxicity Test Algal 96-H Growth Toxicity Test Acute Toxicity Tests with Aquatic Vertebrates and Macroinvertebrates Terrestrial Vertebrate Toxicity Tests Animal Care and Use Considerations Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay: FETAX Multispecies Toxicity Tests Standardized Aquatic Microcosm Mixed Flask Culture FIFRA Microcosm Soil Core Microcosm Summary Appendix: The Natural History and Utilization of Selected Test Species Aquatic Vertebrates Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) Goldfish (Carassius auratus) Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas) Channel Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) Green Sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus) Invertebrates — Freshwater Daphnids (Daphnia magna, D. pulex, D. pulicaria, Ceriodaphnia dubia) Amphipods (Gammarus lacustris, G. fasciatus, G. pseudolimnaeus, Hyalella azteca) Crayfish (Orconectes sp., Combarus sp., Procambarus sp., Pacifastacus leniusculus) Stoneflies (Pteronarcys sp.) Mayflies (Baetis sp., Ephemeralla sp., Hexagenia limbata, H. bilineata) Midges (Chironomus sp.) Snails (Physa integra, P. herterostropha, Amnicola limosa): (Mollusca, Gastropoda) Planaria (Dugesia tigrina): (Platyhelminthes, Turbellaria) Invertebrates — Saltwater Copepods (Acartia clausi, Acartia tonsa) Algae Chlamydomonas reinhardi Ulothrix sp. Microcystis aeruginosa Anabaena flos-aquae Avian Species Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) Ring-Necked Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) References and Suggested Readings Study Questions Chapter 5 Routes of Exposure and Modes of Action The Damage Process Atmospheric Pollutants and Plants Plant Injury Vertebrates Exposure Uptake Transport Storage Metabolism Excretion Mechanisms of Action Disruption or Destruction of Cellular Structure Direct Chemical Combination with a Cellular Constituent Effect on Enzymes Secondary Action as a Result of the Presence of a Pollutant Metal Shift Common Modes of Action in Detail Narcosis Organophosphates Monohaloacetic Acids Introduction to QSAR Construction of QSAR Models Typical QSAR Model Development Estimation of Toxicity Using QSAR