Environmental Studies - Sustainability K Introduction to e r Introduction to Energy and Climate r Energy and Climate “In the crowded market of books on energy and climate, this offering from Julie Kerr stands out as an accessible I n and wide-ranging offering. The book covers all aspects of energy and climate that one would expect to see t in such a text. Topics span food, population growth, urban planning and the science behind climate change r through to economics and geopolitics. It is rare to see such a wide coverage in a book of this type, but is o Developing a very much in the spirit and practice of sustainability. I can highly recommend it; especially for those wishing d to locate the climate change debates within a broader sustainability context. After all, this matters to us all, whether we like it or not.” u Sustainable —Stephen Morse, University of Surrey, England c t “This book points the way to solving climate change, not in a naive way, but recognizing it as a multi-faceted i o Environment problem framed within many other environmental and societal issues. It is a great read and holds the readers hand through the complexity, encouraging us to make up our own minds.” n —Piers Forster, University of Leeds, England t o “…covers many different aspects of sustainability, which would be helpful for undergraduate classes. The student will be exposed to many different dimensions of sustainability and the climate.” E —Thomas Macagno, Chatham University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA n e This valuable book written from a practical viewpoint to everyone addresses: r g (cid:37)(cid:3)The science of climate change dealing with environmental issues, population, ecosystems, and conservation y (cid:37)(cid:3)Laws of energy and the sources of energy with their impact on the environment a (cid:37)(cid:3)Climate change’s multiple dimensions and considerations for the future n (cid:37)(cid:3)How to successfully create a sustainable environment that is equitable and fair globally d (cid:37)(cid:3)Applications in sustainability in areas of technology, green careers, and ecotourism C l i m a t e K29613 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW Julie A. Kerr Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487 ISBN: 978-1-4987-7439-0 711 Third Avenue 90000 New York, NY 10017 an informa business 2 Park Square, Milton Park www.crcpress.com Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK 9 781498 774390 w w w. c r c p r e s s . c o m Introduction to Energy and Climate Introduction to Energy and Climate Developing a Sustainable Environment by Julie A. Kerr CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-7439-0 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and informa- tion, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copy- right Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Gines, Julie K., author. Title: Introduction to energy and climate : developing a sustainable environment / Julie Kerr. Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: LCCN 2016057705 | ISBN 9781498774390 (hardback : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Power resources--Environmental aspects. | Climatic changes. | Sustainability. | Sustainable living. | Renewable energy sources. Classification: LCC TD195.E49 G36 2017 | DDC 363.738/74--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016057705 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................xix Author ........................................................................................................................................................................................xxi Chapter 1 Understanding the Environment: Resources, Climate, Energy, and Sustainability................................................1 Overview .................................................................................................................................................................1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................1 Development ............................................................................................................................................................2 Understanding the Environment and Our Role in It ..........................................................................................2 How Humans Affect the Environment ...............................................................................................................3 Overpopulation ..............................................................................................................................................3 Our Desire for a Higher Standard of Living ..................................................................................................4 Environmental Pollution ................................................................................................................................4 Climate Change .............................................................................................................................................9 Environmental Issues and Why They Are Important ......................................................................................12 Today’s Most Critical Environmental Issues ....................................................................................................12 Environmental Ethics .......................................................................................................................................13 The Effects of Human Population Growth .......................................................................................................14 Worldwide Production and Distribution of Food .............................................................................................15 Food: Scarcity versus Distribution ...................................................................................................................16 Water Resources ..........................................................................................................................................17 Air Pollution and Climate Change ...................................................................................................................17 Ecosystems and the Importance of Biodiversity ..............................................................................................18 Sustainable Development, Conservation, and Energy Resources ....................................................................23 Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................................................24 References .............................................................................................................................................................24 Suggested Reading ................................................................................................................................................25 Section i the earth’s climate Balance and consequences of climate change Chapter 2 The Climate System ..............................................................................................................................................29 Overview ...............................................................................................................................................................29 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................29 Development ..........................................................................................................................................................30 What Is Climate Change? .................................................................................................................................30 The Global System Concept .............................................................................................................................32 The Atmosphere’s Structure .............................................................................................................................33 The Carbon Cycle: Natural versus Human Amplification ...............................................................................34 The Hydrologic Cycle and the Relationships between the Land, the Ocean, and the Atmosphere .................36 Global Energy Balance .....................................................................................................................................37 Rates of Change ................................................................................................................................................38 Atmospheric Circulation and Climate Change ................................................................................................39 Extreme Weather ..............................................................................................................................................40 The Role of Ocean Circulation in Climate Change .....................................................................................42 The Great Ocean Conveyor Belt and Consequences of Destabilization—Abrupt Climate Change ................45 Effects of Sea-Level Rise ............................................................................................................................47 Future Projections ........................................................................................................................................48 Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................................................49 References .............................................................................................................................................................50 Suggested Reading ................................................................................................................................................51 v vi Contents Chapter 3 Greenhouse Gases .................................................................................................................................................53 Overview ...............................................................................................................................................................53 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................53 Development ..........................................................................................................................................................53 Radiation Transmission ....................................................................................................................................54 The Natural and Enhanced Greenhouse Effect ................................................................................................54 Radiative Forcing .............................................................................................................................................56 The Earth’s Energy Balance .............................................................................................................................57 Greenhouse Gases ............................................................................................................................................57 Climate Change Potential .................................................................................................................................58 Carbon Sequestration .......................................................................................................................................59 Sinks and Sources .............................................................................................................................................60 Types of Carbon Sequestration .........................................................................................................................62 Impacts of Deforestation ..................................................................................................................................63 Anthropogenic Causes and Effects—Carbon Footprints.................................................................................64 Areas Most at Risk ...........................................................................................................................................66 Fossil Fuels and Climate Change .....................................................................................................................66 The New Carbon Balance—Summing It All Up ........................................................................................67 The Concern about Coal Emissions ............................................................................................................69 Health Issues Associated with Climate Change ...............................................................................................71 Contributors to Climate Change and Pollution ................................................................................................74 Key Impacts ......................................................................................................................................................74 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................................76 References .............................................................................................................................................................76 Suggested Reading ................................................................................................................................................77 Chapter 4 Effects on Ecosystems ...........................................................................................................................................79 Overview ...............................................................................................................................................................79 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................79 Development ..........................................................................................................................................................79 Results of Climate Change on Ecosystems ......................................................................................................82 Impacts to Forests .............................................................................................................................................83 Impacts to Rangelands, Grasslands, and Prairies ............................................................................................86 Impacts on Polar Ecosystems ...........................................................................................................................87 Impacts of Climate Change on Desert Ecosystems .........................................................................................92 Desertification ..................................................................................................................................................93 Heat Waves .......................................................................................................................................................95 Wildfire .............................................................................................................................................................96 Mountain Ecosystems in Danger Worldwide ...................................................................................................98 Challenges in Marine Environments ..............................................................................................................100 Temperate Marine Environments ...................................................................................................................100 Sea-Level Rise .................................................................................................................................................101 Tropical Marine Environments .......................................................................................................................101 Fragile Ecosystems—Reefs and Corals ..........................................................................................................101 Freshwater Environments ...............................................................................................................................102 Summing It All Up .........................................................................................................................................103 Conclusions .........................................................................................................................................................104 References ...........................................................................................................................................................104 Suggested Reading ..............................................................................................................................................105 Contents vii Chapter 5 Sociological and Psychological Considerations to Climate Change ...................................................................107 Overview .............................................................................................................................................................107 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................107 Development ........................................................................................................................................................108 The Environment and Sociology ....................................................................................................................108 Disastrous Human Impact on the Environment ..............................................................................................111 TVA Kingston Fossil Plant Coal Fly Ash Slurry Spill ...............................................................................112 The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill ........................................................................................................................112 Pacific Gyre Garbage Patch ........................................................................................................................112 Jilin Chemical Plant Explosions .................................................................................................................112 Castle Bravo ................................................................................................................................................113 Three Mile Island Nuclear Explosion .........................................................................................................113 The Kuwait Oil Fires ..................................................................................................................................113 Door to Hell ................................................................................................................................................113 The Palomares Incident ..............................................................................................................................113 Sidoarjo Mud Flow .....................................................................................................................................113 Libby, Montana Asbestos Contamination ..................................................................................................113 Deepwater Horizon (BP) Oil Spill ..............................................................................................................113 Amoco Cadiz ..............................................................................................................................................114 Ecocide in Vietnam ....................................................................................................................................114 The Al-Mishraq Fire ...................................................................................................................................114 The Love Canal ..........................................................................................................................................114 Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone .........................................................................................................................114 Minamata Disease ......................................................................................................................................114 The Seveso Disaster ....................................................................................................................................114 E-waste in Guiyu, China .............................................................................................................................115 Baia Mare Cyanide Spill ............................................................................................................................115 The Shrinking of the Aral Sea ...................................................................................................................115 The Bhopal Disaster ...................................................................................................................................115 The Chernobyl Nuclear Explosion ..............................................................................................................115 The Great Smog of 1952 .............................................................................................................................115 The Human Need for Biodiversity ..................................................................................................................119 Environmental Movements—The Classic Case of Earth Day .......................................................................120 Ramifications of Climate Change on Society ................................................................................................120 Climate Justice ...............................................................................................................................................121 Immigration Issues .........................................................................................................................................122 One Explanation to Encourage Going Green .................................................................................................123 Other Social Factors to Consider ....................................................................................................................123 Drought and Desertification ......................................................................................................................123 Soil Condition ............................................................................................................................................125 Geographic Location .................................................................................................................................125 Ability to Cope ..........................................................................................................................................125 Cultural Restrictions ..................................................................................................................................125 Urban Populations......................................................................................................................................125 Relocation ..................................................................................................................................................126 Climate Change, Human Psychology, Cultural Values, and the Media .........................................................126 The Power of the Media .................................................................................................................................127 Confronting the Disinformation Campaign ...................................................................................................128 Keeping a Journalistic Balance ......................................................................................................................128 Scientists’ Mind-Sets and Data Change .........................................................................................................129 The Occasional Data Flaw ..............................................................................................................................131 Conclusions .........................................................................................................................................................132 References ...........................................................................................................................................................132 Suggested Reading ..............................................................................................................................................134 viii Contents Chapter 6 Geopolitical Considerations ................................................................................................................................135 Overview .............................................................................................................................................................135 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................135 Development ........................................................................................................................................................135 The Realities of the U.S. Climate Change Belief System ..............................................................................136 The Beginnings of Change in Legislation ......................................................................................................139 New Data Released by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ...........................................140 What the Environmental Protection Agency Is Doing about Climate Change ...............................................141 Mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Rule ............................................................................................142 Federal Vehicle Standards .........................................................................................................................142 Renewable Fuel Standard ...........................................................................................................................143 The U.S. Climate Action Plan ........................................................................................................................144 The Clean Power Plan ....................................................................................................................................145 Five Steps the United States Must Take Now .................................................................................................146 The International Political Arena ....................................................................................................................147 Progress in Key Countries ...............................................................................................................................147 United Nations Climate Talks, Paris, 2015 ....................................................................................................149 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................................................................151 References ...........................................................................................................................................................151 Suggested Reading ..............................................................................................................................................152 Chapter 7 Public Perception and Economic Issues ..............................................................................................................153 Overview .............................................................................................................................................................153 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................153 Development ........................................................................................................................................................153 What the Public Thinks about Climate Change .............................................................................................154 Climate Change in General .......................................................................................................................154 Ideological Views ......................................................................................................................................156 Climate Change Demographics .................................................................................................................157 Climate Change Responsibility and Mitigation ........................................................................................158 Current Threat Perception ..............................................................................................................................160 Climate Change and Economic Considerations .............................................................................................160 Economic Impacts of Drought and Desertification ........................................................................................162 The Fishing and Forestry Industries ...............................................................................................................164 Agriculture and Food Production ...................................................................................................................166 Impacts to the Recreation and Tourism Industry ...........................................................................................168 Healthcare and Labor Related Impacts ...........................................................................................................170 Meeting the Challenges of Climate Impacts ..................................................................................................172 Conclusions ..........................................................................................................................................................173 References ............................................................................................................................................................174 Suggested Reading ...............................................................................................................................................175 Chapter 8 Climate Change Mitigation Options ...................................................................................................................177 Overview .............................................................................................................................................................177 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................177 Development ........................................................................................................................................................177 Climate Change Mitigation Options ..............................................................................................................177 The Agricultural Sector .............................................................................................................................177 The Forestry Sector ....................................................................................................................................178 The Energy Sector ......................................................................................................................................178 The Manufacturing Sector .........................................................................................................................179 Contents ix The Transportation Sector .........................................................................................................................179 The Tourism Sector ...................................................................................................................................179 The Building Sector ...................................................................................................................................180 The Waste Management Sector .................................................................................................................180 Economics of Mitigation .................................................................................................................................181 Cap and Trade .................................................................................................................................................182 The Economics of Cap and Trade ..................................................................................................................184 Carbon Pricing ...............................................................................................................................................185 Carbon Sequestration and Storage .................................................................................................................185 Indirect Sequestration ................................................................................................................................186 Direct Sequestration ..................................................................................................................................187 Geological Formation Sequestration ..............................................................................................................188 Ocean Sequestration .......................................................................................................................................190 Economic Benefits of Carbon Storage ............................................................................................................191 Adaptation Strategies......................................................................................................................................192 Conclusions .........................................................................................................................................................194 References ...........................................................................................................................................................194 Suggested Reading ..............................................................................................................................................195 Section ii energy Sources, their Future, and Sustainable Living Chapter 9 Energy: Basics, Concepts, and Quantification ....................................................................................................199 Overview .............................................................................................................................................................199 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................199 Development ........................................................................................................................................................199 What Is Energy? .............................................................................................................................................199 The Discovery of Energy ................................................................................................................................200 Forms and Sources of Energy ........................................................................................................................201 Laws of Energy ...............................................................................................................................................205 Transporting Energy .......................................................................................................................................206 Light ...........................................................................................................................................................206 Heat ............................................................................................................................................................206 The Black-Body Spectrum of Radiation from Objects ..............................................................................207 Electrical Energy .......................................................................................................................................207 Converting Energy and Units of Measurement ..............................................................................................207 Measuring Energy: Units and Calculators .....................................................................................................208 Measuring Electrical Energy ..........................................................................................................................209 Measuring Thermal Energy ............................................................................................................................210 Degree Days ....................................................................................................................................................210 Changing Trends in Energy Use in the United States .....................................................................................211 Uses of Energy ................................................................................................................................................212 Energy Efficiency and Conservation ..............................................................................................................212 The Necessity of Renewable Energy ..............................................................................................................213 Conclusions ..........................................................................................................................................................214 References ............................................................................................................................................................214 Suggested Reading ...............................................................................................................................................214 Chapter 10 Nonrenewable Energy Resources ........................................................................................................................215 Overview .............................................................................................................................................................215 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................215