Interview with Michael Baxandall February 3rd, 1994, Berkeley, CA Allan Langdale A. L. - I would be interested to find out who your first intellectual mentors were and what your experiences were in your early university education. I suppose I’m looking for some early formations of your intellectual interests. M. B. – Well, I suppose, quite certainly it would be F. R. Leavis.1 Have you ever heard of F. R. Leavis? A. L. - Yes. M. B. - I read English at Cambridge. I’d got into Cambridge on Classics but changed to English, and was taught by Leavis at Downing College. I think still he’s the largest influence I’m aware of. But in a curious way it’s not really a matter of one’s work looking like his. It was the first time I was intellectually excited. There were all sorts of aspects of his work which I still admire, certainly. A. L. - Was he also a model as an educator? M. B. - He was a problematic—no, problematic is the wrong word—but he was a difficult man, and many people disliked him. I didn't dislike him. I wasn’t personally close to him, but there was a moral urgency about his approach to literature which could take forms in literary criticism which one might not want, but which I still find admirable. I thought about this a couple of years ago when someone writing yet another book about Leavis wrote to me and asked what I felt about the influence of Leavis on people who had worked outside literary criticism, because I was one, and I thought about it quite a lot because, it’s interesting, it’s very difficult to pin down particulars when you’re working in different fields and I’ve got friends who are also people from Leavis who are now anthropologists or whatever and they are different again but, you know, there’s something consistent in all these people. In some ways he was a very, very powerful teacher. Even for people who did not go into literary criticism. A. L. - And this was less him offering a model for method, but rather this dedication? 1 Frank Raymond Leavis. See works such as New Bearings in English Poetry: A Study in the Contemporary Situation, London: Chatto & Windus, 1938; The Great Tradition, Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1954; and Revaluation: tradition and development in English poetry, New York: W. W. Norton, 1963. Journal of Art Historiography Number 1 December 2009 Allan Langdale Interview with Michael Baxandall M. B. - Yes, and his various values. I mean he was a nonconformist, he was an outsider. He was widely considered difficult by the other Dons at Cambridge. He had this strong sense of the importance of relevance, almost a moral sense of relevance. It was not a matter of things being immediately applicable; he taught us very carefully that it was not a matter of a need for social didacticism. And then there was his sense of there being an indication of a total order in every fragment of a thing, you know, that goes right through. That’s still important to me. Then he was interested in art—literature, that is to say—which maintains contact with the vernacular, not necessarily the popular but a vernacular life. Then he had a strong sense of the relationship between technique and morality, in almost a nineteenth- century sense. And so on, it’s these things that... when I’m writing he’s still one of the people peering over my shoulder, trying to keep me honest. You know, I was eighteen. I’d never been intellectually excited in this way before. A. L. - When you mentioned some aspects of Leavis I’m reminded of Wittgenstein in some ways. M. B. - I think, yes, you mentioned Wittgenstein in one of your letters. Leavis actually was a friend of Wittgenstein. Or had been. I don’t know if they were intellectually influential on each other. I don’t know what to say about that because the truth is I’ve never really sat down and read Wittgenstein. There’s a general problem, I think, when one’s thinking about influences on one, in that—and Wittgenstein is a case of this—one may never have read a thing, and yet Wittgenstein and other things were very much in the air in some diffused form. In other words a lot of the most powerful influences on one, one doesn't know the name of oneself at the time. The people one cites are people who usually have helped one with some local negotiation. While the big Zeitgeist people for example, one is not aware of. I mean I’ve read odd bits of Wittgenstein, very vaguely. But how can I deny it? I’m sure I’ve been influenced by Wittgenstein. A. L. - I get the impression that Cambridge at the time you were there was very much influenced by Wittgenstein, and Russell. M. B. - Well there was Cambridge and there was Cambridge. I was in the English school and I don’t think we knew much. We knew there was this character Wittgenstein but not much beyond that. But there’s another aspect here which is complicated and that is there is a sense in which one may know of somebody like Wittgenstein—or another thing that people bring up, Structuralism—not through directly knowing them but by knowing things they came out of to a certain extent. And the combination of knowing things they came out of and what’s in the air gets to one in some way. In other words I find it very difficult to... even in cases like Wittgenstein or Structuralism, where I was not aware of these things at the time. I don’t think it would be accurate to deny influence. 2 Allan Langdale Interview with Michael Baxandall A. L. - Well, I suppose this brings us specifically to Giotto and the Orators because of course at certain points at any rate it certainly looks like it uses a Structuralist method.2 M. B. - Yeah, I was astonished when somebody said this at the time, because I didn’t know what Structuralism was, and yet it is clearly Structuralist. A. L. - There is a point fairly early on in the book where you use the phrase ‘Meaning is use’. M. B. - Ah yes, but that...I don’t know, is that Wittgenstein? A. L. - Well, yes, I believe so.3 M. B. - Though I think other people have used it before. I was getting that out of a certain amount of reading in some kinds of linguistics, not philosophy, that came to me—I mean I was aware of it, I was quoting it—but it came to me from linguistics. A. L. - Now one of the references that you give somewhere is Jameson’s Prison-house of Language.4 Is that the sort of linguistics that you were reading? M. B. - I was interested in various kinds of linguistics. The Prison-house of Language had a certain resonance with what I thought I was doing. I read linguistics unsystematically, mainly American and English linguistics. A. L. - The linguistic relativists; had you read Benjamin Lee Whorf?5 M. B. - Yes, I had read Whorf and decided that he had gone too far. Even then I was not a linguistic relativist in that sense. For me, as I remember, the distinction was between having a word for a thing facilitating thinking about a thing rather than the Whorfian sense that you had to have a word about a thing to think about a thing. And what interested me more than the Whorf thing, and still does interest me, was the whole idea of enforced discrimination. A. L. - So that’s the ‘linguistic enforcement’ you mention in Giotto and the Orators. M. B. - Yes, and I recently used it again in a different context in a paper which came out in a Festschrift this year which I call ‘pictorially enforced discrimination’, it’s about the difference between pictorial representations of the Annunciation and verbal, theological ones. A. L. - What was that reference? M. B. – It’s called Hülle und Fülle. Festschrift fur Tilman Buddensieg.6 2 Michael Baxandall, Giotto and the Orators. Humanist observers of painting in Italy and the discovery of pictorial composition 1350-1450, Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1971. 3 Ludwig Wittgenstein, The Philosophical Investigations, trans. G. E. M. Anscomb, New York: MacMillan, 1953. The notion comes from the first part of the Investigations where Wittgenstein writes: ‘For a large class of cases—though not all—in which we employ the word ‘meaning’ it can be defined thus: the meaning of a word is in its use in the language.’ p. 20. 4 Fredric Jameson, The Prison-house of Language: a critical account of structuralism and Russian Formalism, Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1972. 5 Benjamin Lee Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality. Selected Writings, Cambridge, Mass.: Press of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1956. 3 Allan Langdale Interview with Michael Baxandall A. L. - May I ask you about Boas because wasn’t Gombrich interested in him? M. B. - Yes. I think it was Gombrich who told me to read Boas.7 A. L. - And was his relativism more to your liking? M. B. - I don’t think I thought about him in quite those terms. I was more interested in what he had to say about the relationship between medium and form. And that’s what particularly interested me in Boas, not his relativism. A. L. - In reading Giotto and the Orators there is much that reminds me of Panofsky’s Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism.8 Did you know this book, were there some ways in which you were trying to go beyond its limitations? M. B. - Well, let me say first—because acknowledgement is due here—the first book I read on art which made me think it might be interesting to be an art historian was Meaning in the Visual Arts, which I thought was a really neat book.9 You know, as opposed to Berenson, it might be interesting to do. I must have read Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism by that stage. I didn’t then, and still don’t now think of it in relation to the Orators because for me the interest of his criticism there, which I think better of than many people do, lay in the attempt to relate artistic forms to conceptual thinking and pushing it really hard. What I like about the book is that he’s not cautious, he pushes it... and this is where it takes you. As you know there were two levels of play. One I accepted the other I didn’t. I wasn’t aware of that playing much of a role in the Orators, but I certainly knew the book. A. L. - Another person in whom you were obviously interested, at least in terms of defining your understanding and defining of Humanism, was Kristeller.10 M. B. - Yes, Kristeller. Well, Kristeller was Mr. Humanism in those days. A. L. - Did you have a direct relationship with him? M. B. - Yes, he at some stage—I can’t remember when exactly—came to the Warburg Institute, came and talked. I had found the Facius manuscript. In all honesty I don’t think Kristeller played an important part; what were you thinking of? 6 Michael Baxandall, ‘Pictorially Enforced Signification: St. Antoninus, Fra Angelico and the Annunciation’, in Hülle und Fülle: Festshcrift für Tilman Buddensieg, A. Beyer, V. Lampugnani and G. Schweikhart, eds, Alfter: Verlag und Datenbank f r Geistwissenschaften, 1993, 31-39. ü 7 For a brief biography see E. H. Gombrich, ‘The History of Ideas. A Personal Tribute to George Boas’, in Tributes. Interpreters of our cultural tradition, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984, 165-183. With A. O. Lovejoy, George Boas is known as one of the founders of ‘the history of ideas’. 8 Erwin Panofsky, Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism, Cleveland and New York: Meridian Books, 1967. First published 1951. 9 Erwin Panofsky, Meaning in the Visual Arts. Papers in and on art history, Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1955. 10 P. O. Kristeller is known mostly for his volumes of manuscript lists and his work on the humanist Marsilio Ficino (1433-99). Kristeller’s essays have been collected in Renaissance Thought and the Arts. Collected Essays of P. O. Kristeller, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990. 4 Allan Langdale Interview with Michael Baxandall A. L. - I suppose, in a sense, that his objectives seemed to be similar to Gombrich’s in terms of how humanism’s role was to be evaluated in the Renaissance. You had acknowledged Kristeller in the Orators. M. B. - Yes. The acknowledgement to Kristeller is apropos of... Kristeller was a great letter writer, and at every post one got a letter with manuscript numbers! And that was very useful. But I think I disappointed him a bit because, you know, he really wanted me to go and collate manuscripts, make editions, which I wasn’t much interested in doing. But he was always very helpful. But I don’t think of him, as opposed to some others, as having had very much effect on my notion of what the Renaissance was. There were various people around—I’m thinking of the sixties and seventies—Billanovich,11 Garin,12 Kristeller. A. L. - The book is dedicated to Gertrud Bing.13 Could you indulge me by talking to me about her? M. B. - Gertrud Bing was an absolutely marvelous person. Now what shall I say about her? She was director when I first encountered the Warburg Institute. She really brought me in. Gombrich was in America at the time. She had been an assistant to Warburg of some sort. You knew that. She didn’t publish much herself. Her doctorate had been on educational theory. She was the ultimate reader, in all respects. For example, I still have manuscripts from that period which I gave her to read and on which she had written. And the good natured shrewdness with which—reading a paper on something which she probably didn't know much about—she saw where things were wrong; she had a sense. But I dedicated the book to her because she died not long before the book came out and, you know, she had been a really good friend. It’s difficult to convey the character of somebody who hasn’t written much or been a great lecturer. She was immensely tough, a really tough Hamburg intellectual. Totally admirable. And that intellectual tradition can be immensely appealing for somebody coming out of the English school. A. L. – Doesn’t Gombrich mention in the book on Warburg that Gertrud Bing had been working for some time on a manuscript on Warburg, but this she had destroyed and had never published.14 Do you know anything about that? Did she ever speak to you about it? M. B. - Not really. The whole business of writing up Warburg was a bit of a problem at the Institute, still is. The notion was that when she retired—while she was director she was really too busy to do it—she would do something. I’m not sure if it was specifically on Warburg’s language, but she was going to do something on 11 Giuseppe Billanovich. An Italian scholar at the Catholic University of Milan and a central figure behind the periodical Italia medioevale e umanistica. Much of his work has been on Petrarch. 12 Eugenio Garin. Italian scholar of humanism and Italian intellectual history of the Medieval and Renaissance periods including Italian Humanism. Philosophy and Civic Life in the Renaissance, Peter Munz, trans., Oxford: Blackwell, 1965; Science and Civic Life in the Italian Renaissance, Peter Munz, trans., New York: Anchor Books, 1969; Portraits from the Renaissance, Victor and Elizabeth Velen, trans., New York: Harper and Row, 1972. 13 Director of the Warburg Institute, London. Formerly assistant to Aby Warburg. 14 E. H. Gombrich, Aby Warburg. An Intellectual Biography, London: The Warburg Institute, 1970, 14. 5 Allan Langdale Interview with Michael Baxandall Warburg. But somehow it never came about. Now I’m not at all clear on what exists. I didn’t see what she did. And I think it was the preliminary arranging of material rather than actually writing. But when she did write she wrote beautifully. A. L. The introduction to the collected works of Warburg.15 M. B. - Yes, it’s a nice piece. The dedication to Bing was partially intellectual, partly personal. A. L. - At what point do you think your interests were going more from the literary and classical to art? Was that at the Victoria and Albert? M. B. - When I left Cambridge I got a scholarship to go to Italy to study literature and I got interested in the arts when I was there. Now, the reason I came back to this humanist literature was that in the days when I was meant to be doing a PhD thesis (which I never did) the PhD was to be on restraint in the Renaissance—the development of various kinds of restraint not only in art but in other matters too— because I didn’t like the way Norbert Elias had done it.16 I wanted to do it in a different way. I was interested in all sorts of things; manners, and so on. One of the early bodies of material I started working on, which was originally just going to be a step on to something else, was art criticism. It was clear that the use of Classical Latin or near Classical Latin was a strong agent in bringing about this restraint. I was interested in the way people became more restrained in the way they held themselves, and that sort of thing. These texts, when I came to do my thesis, it seemed to me that I should do a preliminary job on them, and that’s what the Orators was. Unfortunately, it expanded and eventually became the book. I really didn’t intend to write that book. A. L. - Were you aiming at something more like Painting and Experience originally?17 M. B. - No, what I was aiming at I think was... [pause]. This becomes a bit complicated because there’s no simple way of explaining what I was aiming at. So perhaps I should mention another intellectual influence, this one of a rather peculiar kind, and that is, that after Italy—while I was in Italy—I decided I had to learn German if I was going to become an art historian, so I needed to earn some money and taught English in Switzerland. Then a year after that I went to the University of Munich where the Ordinarius18 was a man called Hans Sedlmayr—have you heard of Hans Sedlmayr?19—now there’s a problematic character. But I found him fascinating, a hugely clever man, very knowledgeable man, and in a sense I suppose—I’m now returning to the restraint episode—I suppose that what I wanted to do was to do something like Sedlmayr's Verlust der Mitte on the Italian 15 See also Gertrud Bing, ‘A. M. Warburg’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 28, 1965, 299- 313. 16 Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process, E. Jephcott, trans., New York: Urizen Books, 1978. 17 Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-century Italy: a primer in the social history of pictorial style, Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1972. 18 A principal professor in a German University department. 19 Hans Sedlmayr, Art in Crisis: the lost center, B. Battershaw, trans., London: Hollis and Carter, 1957. Originally Verlust der Mitte: die bildende Kunst des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts als Symptom und Symbol der Zeit, Salzburg: O. Müller, 1948. 6 Allan Langdale Interview with Michael Baxandall Renaissance, but honest, and proper, and solid, in a sense. Because, you know, Verlust der Mitte just won’t do. I don’t know if you’ve read it. It’s called Art in Crisis in the English edition. Sedlmayr was... there were problems. But the sense that you could address culture and art directly in some funny way had a certain resonance with Leavis. And I wanted to write a book of this sort. In other words I suppose that I was thinking that I wanted to do Leavis on art and Sedlmayr honestly, instead of with what I considered the trickery. So that’s what it was. And I suppose the texture. I still have piles of notes from this in London, which occasionally becomes useful for teaching [laughter]. A. L. - One of your early publications was through the Victoria and Albert.20 What was your connection, exactly, with the Victoria and Albert? Were there any people there who interested you intellectually? M. B. - Yes, I was a Junior Fellow for two years at the Warburg Institute and that was basically a research grant. And at the end of this I needed a job and I had a chance at two jobs, one teaching and one in the museum, so I went to the museum and I was assistant keeper at the sculpture department at the Victoria and Albert for four years. A. L. - Is that where the interest in German wood sculpture came from?21 M. B. - Yes, that is where that came from. Because I thought that I’d be working on that huge Italian sculpture collection but it turned out that John Pope-Hennessy had just finished the big catalogue.22 So it was suggested to me that it would be nice if I turned to the German and French collections—and I took them on with the idea of eventually cataloguing them—which are much smaller collections. I started with the German and that’s as far as I got really. That’s how I became interested in that sort of thing. Partly out of pure bewilderment. A lot of the German sculpture I didn’t like, and was puzzled by it. People like Veit Stoß, and about what this came out of. A. L. - Does this catalogue element explain the rather unique form of the Limewood Sculptors book? A book in the first half, and catalogue with extensive entries in the second half? M. B. - Yes, I felt I had to do that, or I felt I was justified in doing that, because most English readers and American readers wouldn’t really know who these people were and therefore needed somewhere to look them up. I never envisioned anybody reading that through. It’s meant to turn to or to turn to and look at the pictures in the back. It took quite a lot of work. Partly one does these things for one’s own ease of mind, to make sure one’s done the work one’s self, and having done that, you know, I thought I might as well throw it in. I remember one review suggesting that it should have been two books instead of one. 20 Michael Baxandall, German Wood Statuettes 1500-1800, Victoria and Albert Illustrated booklet #14, London: H.M.S.O., 1967. 21 Michael Baxandall, The Limewood Sculptors of Renaissance Germany, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980. 22 John Pope-Hennessey, Catalogue of Italian Sculpture in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London: Victoria and Albert, 1964. 7 Allan Langdale Interview with Michael Baxandall A. L. - I think it works well. M. B. – Well, I mean, it’s an appendix. As I say I never expected people to read it through. It’s not written like that. A. L. - May I ask—this is probably too vague—how you perceive your relationship with Gombrich either on a personal or intellectual level. Your first article was co- authored with him. M. B. – Gombrich’s been hugely important to me in various ways. For one thing he was my boss for a long time. And he’s certainly been a big intellectual influence. I mean, the excitement one felt when Art and Illusion came out was huge, and I’m very aware of things, particularly in Art and Illusion, which perhaps were basic to me in Gombrich.23 The whole sense of the way in which the beholder projects, to me is hugely important. It had never occurred to me before reading Art and Illusion; actually I had because I’d heard him talk about it, but Gombrich made the thing a revelation to one. So it was very important. I don’t know how one assesses degrees of importance, I mean he’s been around ever since I’ve been in the business; he’s still very active right now. A. L. - Do you feel your concept of the Period Eye was in any way an attempt to flesh out or further the concept of the Beholder’s Share? M. B. - No, I don’t. Incidentally Gombrich doesn’t like that book (Painting and Experience). I mean, when that book came out many people didn’t like it for various reasons. It seems a bland enough book now but at the time people were really rather angry about it. And for Gombrich as for many there was an element of sort of reintroducing the Zeitgeist by the back door, with the notion of the Period Eye. I would deny that, but that is what many people felt. Now with the Period Eye I, again, in a sense am probably not the person to say where the influence comes from. I mean, I’m aware of certain things and so on. I got that from anthropology. A. L. - The same place you got cognitive style... M. B. - Yeah, Herskovits...24 A. L. - Yes, I have it here... M. B. - That certainly... as I say, I spent a lot of time in the evenings with anthropologists in those days. So that is what the Period Eye for me would become; one could think of a sort of a Cultural Eye and this is simply the application of that. And for me it seemed a sort of perfectly obvious thing to do, I mean I wasn’t aware of the problems. A. L. - It seemed to me to very much like the concept of the Carpentered Environment.25 23 E. H. Gombrich, Art and Illusion. A study in the psychology of pictorial representation, New York: Pantheon, 1960. 24 See Melville Herskovits, Cultural Anthropology, New York, 1955; and Melville Herskovits et. al., A Cross-cultural study of Perception, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969. 8 Allan Langdale Interview with Michael Baxandall M. B. - Yes, there it’s like Whorf again. If one pushes this too far, just as I stopped before Whorf, I stopped before the Carpentered Environment. But what I do believe in is the power of culturally acquired skills. A. L. - This is one thing that I was going to ask you, if the Period Eye was the optical equivalent of linguistic relativism, so that Whorfian linguistic relativism was, in its logic, like the Carpentered Environment. M. B. - It depends what kind of analogy you wanted to make and on what register one was making it, but I think that there are...yes...not exact symmetry. A. L. - I don’t think that you reintroduce the Zeitgeist, you keep to particulars. M. B. - Well, I thought I was sticking to skills. A. L. - Of specific sub-communities... M. B. - Not the Zeitgeist. A. L. - There was one thing—this is more for my curiosity—did you ever think that there was a certain affinity, when you were preparing Giotto and the Orators, between what you were engaged in and what someone like Lorenzo Valla had been engaged in and did you have a kind of dialogic relationship with Valla? M. B. - Valla is still one of my heroes. I love Valla. I hadn’t thought of it in quite that form but I’d be happy to agree to that, yes. On the whole I didn’t take to many of the humanists but Valla... the irritability, the sharpness, and so on, I found very congenial, and still do. A. L. - As I do as well. You know this article which calls Valla an ‘ordinary language’ philosopher?26 M. B. - No, I haven't come across it. But it’s quite true. A. L. – I’ll send you that and the very acid reply to it by John Monfasani. A very bitter attack.27 M. B. - Yes, I’d be interested. No, I’d be happy to think of myself as an imitator of Valla. A. L. - One finds out from the prefaces of Giotto and the Orators and Michael Podro’s The Manifold in Perception that the two Michaels were close friends in the late sixties and early seventies.28 And there seems to be some parallels of interest. When I read The Manifold in Perception and I look at how Podro looks at Schopenhauer, Herbart’s 25 Also called the ‘carpentered world hypothesis’. See Marshall H. Segall, D. T. Campbell, and Melville Herskovits, The Influence of Culture on Visual Perception, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966, 83-97. 26 Richard Waswo, ‘The “Ordinary Language Philosophy” of Lorenzo Valla’, Bibliothéque d’Humanisme et Renaissance, 41, 1979, 255-271. 27 John Monfasani, ‘Was Lorenzo Valla an Ordinary Language Philosopher?’ Journal of the History of Ideas, 50.2, April-June, 1989, 309-323. Included following the essay are responses by Waswo and Sarah Stever Gravelle. 28 Michael Podro, The Manifold in Perception: Theories of Art from Kant to Hildebrand, Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1972. 9 Allan Langdale Interview with Michael Baxandall concept of mind, and especially Fiedler’s ideas, I can see them playing off interestingly with your projects. M. B. - Well, we were very, very close. I mean we still are in a sense. Just as Leavis is one who reads over my shoulder to keep me honest Michael Podro is another. And I often think of what he would make of this. And we read each others’ things. Now he is much more able to deal with philosophical matters than I am. When I was a junior fellow, and also when I was at the museum we might spend several hours a week talking to one another. He was very important to me. I learned an immense amount from him. And, incidentally, again, he is Cambridge English school as well. He was at Cambridge the same time as me. He wasn’t at my College but, you know, he read English. A. L. - Unlike you he finally mentions Wittgenstein in the end. M. B. - Yes, well, I mean he’s read Wittgenstein! I haven’t! [laughter] A. L. - I was actually thinking we could talk more about these things tomorrow. But there was one thing I wanted to talk about today. In the late sixties and early seventies, especially in the Polytechnics in England, there was a Marxist or Leftist movement laying the groundwork for what we now call the New Art History or the Social History of Art, problematic as those terms are. Can you comment on your exposure to this trend, to the individuals who exemplified it; such as one of your colleagues here at Berkeley, Tim Clark? I’m not just interested in these people but also in other socially-minded historians like Peter Burke, whose Culture and Society in Renaissance Italy29 was published the same year as your Painting and Experience; as well as Raymond Williams and others who were impressed by the aims and method of the Annales historians such as Lucien Febvre30 and Marc Bloch.31 M.B. - Well, that’s quite a complicated one. First of all the Annales group I had read and liked but was not aware of them being immensely relevant to what I wanted to do. Peter Burke I knew and we were both struck at the similarities between the two books. A. L. - You cover the same ground, but you do very different things. M.B. - We were doing them independently but again it was the spirit of the times. I might not have been as deeply into the Annales as Peter was but it was in the air. Raymond Williams I never knew and really hadn’t read him at that stage. The book of his I still like best is one of his novels. Have you read Border Country?32 It’s a 29 Peter Burke, Culture and Society in Renaissance Italy 1420-1540, New York: Scribner's, 1972. 30 Works include Lucien Febvre, A Geographical Introduction to History, London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1925; Lucien Febvre and H. J. Martin, The Coming of the Book: the impact of printing 1450-1800, D. Gerard, trans., London: N.L.B., 1976; Life in Renaissance France, Marian Rothstein, ed. and trans., Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977; The Problem of Unbelief in the 16th century. The Religion of Rabelais, Beatrice Gottleib, trans., Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982. 31 Works include Marc Bloch, The Historians Craft, Peter Putman, trans., New York: Knopf, 1953; Feudal Society, L. A. Manyon, trans., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964; French Rural History, J. Sondheimer, trans., Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966; Slavery and Serfdom in the Middle Ages, William Beer, trans., Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975. 32 Raymond Williams, Border Country, New York: Horizon Books, 1962. 10