Scientiae  Studia  2014   Archaeology and Critical Feminism of Science: Interview with Alison Wylie with Kelly Koide, Marisol Marini, and Marian Toledo Published in Portuguese in: Scientiae Studia (São Paulo) 12.3 (2014): 549-590. Available online. A discussion of questions about philosophy and archaeology; contextual ideals of objectivity and the role of non-cognitive values in science; what’s feminist about feminist research; feminist standpoint theory and the relevance of feminist analysis to science. Interviewer 1: First, we would like to know about your trajectory and your studies in the university and how you started your interest in archeology and in philosophy of archeology. Alison Wylie: I'm Canadian originally and because my father was military we moved every few years, mainly within Ontario and Quebec. One constant, wherever we lived, was that my parents had a passionate interest in archeology. When based in Ontario my father and one of his colleagues would get funding from the Canadian National Museum to explore Iroquois and Huron sites along the Saint Lawrence River. So most summers as a kid I spent several weeks on archeology sites. That experience didn’t exactly foster a love of archaeology. The work was hot and dirty, and we children were typically sent off to dig in areas on the edge of the site that everyone expected would be sterile; the adults didn't like to let the children excavate anything that might be important (sensibly enough) and this was a way of testing the extent of the site. Whenever we found something interesting, that would be the end of us excavating; our revenge was to rummage through the back dirt to see what the grown-ups had missed in the course of their excavation. As much fun as that was, it left me with a pretty realistic impression of how tedious field work can be. That was my introduction to archeology. It wasn't until much later that I realized the significance of the work that my father’s colleague, Jim Pendergast, had been doing. From the mid-1960s he worked with an eminent Canadian archeologist at McGill, Bruce Trigger, on questions about contact period interactions between tribal groups in the St. Lawrence Valley and incoming Europeans, reconceptualizing them in quite profound ways (Wright and Pilon 2004). Trigger later published an article that was an indictment of the racism of archeological work in Canada and the U.S. which presumed that Native Americans were static, culturally conservative groups that were just reacting to the incoming Europeans: “Archaeology and the Image of the American Indian” (Trigger 1980). Without diminishing the violence of displacement and appropriation, Trigger was intent on documenting the ways in which tribal groups were active agents, savvy and self-determining negotiators in their dealings with Europeans. The collaboration between Trigger and Pendergast resulted in a number of joint publications, including a 1972 book, Cartier’s Hochelaga and the Dawson Site (see Trigger 2006). As an undergraduate, I went to a small college in New Brunswick, Mount Allison University. At the time, they offered no archeology but when I started coursework I wasn’t particularly interested in studying archeology; instead, I discovered a passion for philosophy. It seemed that whatever class I took I gravitated to philosophical questions without knowing quite what those were: in English classes I was intrigued by moral dilemmas and intellectual crises, and in History and Classics I was fascinated by the history of ideas. I took a wonderful introductory course in Philosophy that first year (1972-1973) taught by Paul Bogaard who was a philosopher of chemistry, and in my second year I enrolled in his History and Philosophy of Science course. The summer after my first year in college I needed a job, and was lucky enough to get one working for the archaeology division of Parks Canada. The only relevant experience I had was summer excavations directed by Jim Pendergast who, by that time, had retired from the army and joined the National Museum; I’m sure I have him to thank for convincing Parks Canada that I was worth the risk despite having no formal training in archaeology. I was assigned to Fort Walsh, a late nineteenth century North West Mounted Police (NWMP) site in southwest Saskatchewan, close to the Montana border on the south and to Alberta on the west. It was in that context that I learned about the “New Archaeology” from Jim Sciscenti, the Fort Walsh project director. He had been immersed in a hot-bed of New Archaeology activism at the University of Arizona where he’d done his graduate work, and required anyone who   1 Scientiae  Studia  2014   worked at Fort Walsh to prepare for the field season not only by reading up on NWMP history and local archaeology, but by working through a good long list of contemporary philosophy of science. The following Fall, when I returned to college and took my first course in history and philosophy of science I read many of the same classics over again: contemporary logical empiricists and their antecedents (Mach, Poincaré, Carnap, Hempel), and soon-to-be classics like Kuhn’s Structure and Hanson’s Patterns of Discovery. Thanks to Bogaard I began to articulate a set of questions about how philosophy of science bears on archeological practice that have been central to my interests ever since. So those are the accidents of personal history that brought me to this unlikely intersection of interests. I soon discovered that there philosophers already working on issues raised by archaeology: first and foremost, Merrilee Salmon. When I was ready for graduate school I had the good fortune of finding an interdisciplinary program in the History and Philosophy of Social and Behavioral Sciences, at the State University of New York at Binghamton. The great virtue of that program was that it made it possible for me finally to do coursework in Archeology alongside a Ph.D. in Philosophy. As unusual as this trajectory is, the combination of philosophy of science and archaeology has proven to be really generative. When I work on a particular issue sometimes I start with a paper that's an intervention in an archaeological debate where philosophical questions have been raised and then bring what I learn from the archaeology back to a philosophy audience. Early on I did work on analogical reasoning, initially as a response to some hard-line positivists in archaeology (the New Archeologists of the early 1970s) who had rejected all use of analogy as unscientific and speculative, fit only for generating hypotheses. I argued that well crafted analogical argument could carry evidential weight, and that even its most uncompromising archaeological critics relied on it in contexts of justification as much as of discovery (Wylie 1985). I then went on to develop a paper that was a response to philosophical debate about the role of analogy in science of science that had been opened up initially by Mary Hesse’s Models and Analogies in Science (Hesse 1970; Wylie 1988). In other cases I start with a philosophical question and find it productive to address it through analysis of an archaeological case, sometimes bringing the results back to archaeology. So from the outset the work I’ve done in this interfield typically arises from a process of moving back and forth between these two fields; that dynamic continues to shape my work. How’s that for trajectory? Interviewer 1: I'd like to know just two more things about your trajectory. One: you spoke briefly about the New Archeology when you were in Canada, in Parks Canada. We saw that during your studies at the university, the archeological field was undergoing some transformations. Can you describe very briefly what these changes were? And another question is: Did this context encourage you to be interested in gender issues and, if it didn't, what motivates you to put gender archeology and feminist critique of science as a central piece of your work? Alison Wylie: From the 1960s through the 1970s an aggressively pro-science movement took shape, at least in anthropological archaeology,1 that came to be known as the New Archaeology. The acknowledged leader of the New Archeology was Lewis Binford, an enormously charismatic Figure and a pugnacious critic of what he described as “traditional archeology.” His “fighting articles,” as he later called them, crystallized the frustrations of archaeologists, especially younger cohorts just entering the field at the time, who felt that the field was mired in the business of collecting data as an end in itself, at most teasing out spatial, temporal, and formal patterning in the record, but rarely making effective use of these data as evidence to answer questions about the cultural past (Binford 1962, 1972). This was not an altogether fair appraisal of the archeology that went before. For one thing, when I traced back the history of debate I found a recurrent pattern of complaint along exactly these lines, beginning in the late nineteenth century when, as archeologists professionalized, they distanced themselves from antiquarians, from collecting for the sake of collecting. The central question, restated again and again through the twentieth century, is: how do we use the wealth of material data recovered from the archaeological record as historical, anthropological evidence? How do we do more than just describe what we find in the ground? By the mid-twentieth century the critique was turned inward; antequarians                                                                                                                           1 As opposed to archaeology taught and practiced in the tradition of Classics or Art History, for example.   2 Scientiae  Studia  2014   weren’t the problem so much as professional archaeologists who were preoccupied with “space-time systemtics.” Archaeological claims that seemed ostensibly to be about past cultures were often just re- descriptions of empirical patterns observed in the record. Low-level generalizations about the distribution and change over time of distinctive artifact assemblages – for example, the European Neolithic pottery referred to as “bell beaker” ware – might be described as the evolution and movement and interactions of culture-bearing community – the “Beaker people.” Binford was renewing these earlier calls for a type of archeological practice that could contribute substantive understanding of the cultural past but, to crystallize what was new about the New Archaeology, he invoked logical positivist, logical empiricist accounts of science associated with Carl Hempel. The New Archaeology was to be a self-consciously scientific research program that took explanation as its primary goal and made hypothesis-testing its hallmark mode of practice. These explanatory goals were characterized in terms of Hempel’s deductive- nomological covering-law model, and hypothesis testing in terms of his hypothetico-deductive model of confirmation. A number of attempts were made to give Binford’s deductivist vision clearer articulation by philosophically-minded archaeologists like Patty Jo Watson; she co-authored an early primer for the New Archaeology, Explanation in Archaeology: An Explicitly Scientific Approach (Watson, LeBlanc and Redman 1971). But ultimately, it was not clear how exactly this was supposed to work in practice. A pattern typical of many New Archaeologists was that they’d start their articles with a programmatic statement about what it means for archaeology to be a real (positivist) science, but what they actually did bore little resemblance to the D-N and H-D models they invoked. Even Binford, when he got down to business, more often used the language of causal process rather than laws to describe the goals of an explanation-oriented archeology; he insisted that the goal of a scientific archaeology should be to get at large-scale, long-term cultural processes. (The New Archaeology is also referred to as “processual archaeology.”) In Binford’s hands this processualism too the form of a quite reductive functionalist and eco-materialist orientation. He argued that we should understand culture as “man's extra-somatic adaptation” to material environments, and ridiculed any preoccupation with ”paleo-psychology” – with the intentions and beliefs of past actors or with past cultural lifeworlds – as hopeless and unscientific. Archaeologists should focus, instead, on how various kinds of system-level dynamics – manifest in distinctive assemblages of material culture, inferred subsistence practices, large-scale patterns of social organization – ensure the adaptive viability of cultures, and how interactions with the material environment shaped the trajectory, the evolution of different cultural systems. Those were some of the dominant themes in the New Archaeology literature that I read in the 1970s. In pushing this program, Binford claimed that what archeology needed was a Kuhnian revolution to become a properly positivist science. Even as a sophomore taking my first course in History and Philosophy of Science, the irony of this was inescapable; Kuhn's account, I learned, was meant to displace exactly the positivist models Binford saw as defining what it was to be a real science. So, by the end of my second year in college I begun to grapple with what became the question central to my dissertation: “what can the New Archaeologists possibly mean by insisting that they were positivists?”. I ultimately wrote a thesis entitled, Positivism in the New Archeology (1982); it was an analysis of how positivist rhetoric – especially its foundationalism – mischaracterized the innovative epistemic insights that were emerging in the problem-oriented practice of the New Archaeology. There was a conceptual fault- line running through the New Archaeology, I argued, and by the early 1980s it was clearly visible. Just as I was finishing my Ph.D., a contingent of “post-processual” archaeologists, mainly British, began to publish a series of trenchant critiques of the New Archeology, targeting both its epistemic positivism and its eco-materialist conception of culture. Some of them pushed the critique of positivism to its limit, taking a strongly relativist, social constructivist line. If archaeological evidence is never a given, if it is always, necessarily interpreted in light of ladening theory, then it cannot be expected to provide a test of interpretive or explanatory hypotheses; testing is inevitably circular. I thought that this critique, as developed in the mid- to late 1980s by Ian Hodder, and his students Michael Shanks and Chris Tilley, for example, didn’t capture the potential or the limitations of archaeology any better than Binford’s positivism (Hodder 1984, Shanks and Tilley 1987). In the event, the critics of the New Archaeology didn’t hold this position for long.   3 Scientiae  Studia  2014   As social constructivists, many post-processuals were intent on challenging certain kinds of archeological claims; they were politically reflective and wanted to show that mainstream archeology routinely reproduced ethnocentric – sometimes explicitly nationalist, classist, elitist – presuppositions about what the past had to be like that were just wrong. In the most telling of these critiques they made savvy use of empirical evidence to expose the weakness of hypotheses that had enjoyed widespread acceptance because they conformed to expectation. Clearly, in practice these post-processuals didn't buy corrosive relativism any more than Binford did the stringent foundationalism and deductivism that he sometimes endorsed when trashing “traditional” archaeology. In fact, Binford put enormous emphasis on the need to build and test the “middle range theory” – the auxiliaries or background knowledge – on which archaeologists rely to interpret their data as evidence, so he didn’t assume that archaeological evidence is in any way self-warranting. He also rejected seemingly naïve “inductivist” approaches: the idea that archaeologists should explore the archaeological record without any explicit agenda. In advocating what he called a “problem-oriented” approach Binford recognized that archaeological inquiry is always informed by some conceptual framework or other and, although he rarely cited them, he renewed explicitly anti-empiricist arguments that had been made a generation earlier for taking responsibility for these presuppositions (Kluckhohn 1939, 1940). He insisted that archaeological research should be deliberately designed to test not only archaeological hypotheses about the past, and also the background assumptions on which archaeologists rely to interpret data as test evidence. I thought that this was an especially important core insight of the New Archeology, one that was not at all well captured by hypothetical-deductive testing models and that was also a central motivation for post-processualists, despite all their other differences. I’ve worked on issues raised by the fast-moving debate between processual and post-processual archaeologists as they’ve taken shape, so the conflict I encountered in archeology when I started out has very largely defined the later trajectory of my work. The feminist work I’ve done arose mainly from activism, through working on equity issues, workplace environment issues (sometimes called “chilly climate” issues) for women in male-dominated fields like most areas of academia, and on issues of violence against women. When I began teaching at the University of Western Ontario in the mid-1980s I got involved involved with what was then the Battered Women's Advocacy Clinic (BWAC). I served on the BWAC research committee, working to understand better who wass being battered and using our findings to challenge prevalent stereotypes that tended to isolate and blame those who were victims of violence. BWAC was a resource for women who wanted to address the violence in their lives but, unlike most such agencies at the time, it wasn’t a shelter; it provided short-term counseling, legal referrals, support for finding housing and jobs. We found that the demographic profile of the women who came to BWAC was exactly that of the average Canadian woman, by educational background, employment, income level, number of children, marital status, and so on; most of them had never made use of shelter services or seen police intervention so they didn’t show up in the databases on which claims about battered women were typically based. We were able to show that the standard rhetoric of the time – like that only poor women, or immigrant women, women who were otherwise marginal were victims of domestic violence – didn’t stand up to scrutiny. The results from BWAC were one basis for the arguments that brought about changes in the response to domestic violence in Ontario in the late 1980s. A few years earlier, when I was a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Calgary, I had begun to read feminist philosophy. I’d been asked to teach a broad-spectrum course on “Women and Philosophy” that had just been approved; a senior philosophy of science colleague, Marsha Hanen, had got it on the books but then became Dean and couldn't teach it. I protested that I had no training in feminist philosophy and didn't know the field, but she insisted: "you can do this; you have to do this." It was one of the most productive, transformative teaching experiences I’ve ever had. What was in print at the time (Winter 1985) was predominantly work in feminist ethics and political theory so I read a lot of that, some of it on pornography and sexual violence that was directly relevant to the work I did with BWAC; I later published a few pieces on feminist methodology anchored in the BWAC research (Greaves and Wylie 1995). But, in addition, the Harding and Hintikka collection, Discovering Reality (1983) had just come out and included a number of papers by Evelyn Keller, Nancy Hartsock, and Sandra Harding that have since became classics of feminist philosophy of science. In the course of teaching that class I also discovered Helen Longino and Ruth Doell’s early paper, “Body, Bias and Behavior” (1983), a feminist response to just the kinds of questions about the stability of evidential claims that I was wrestling with in archaeology. That’s   4 Scientiae  Studia  2014   when I began to think about what it would mean to bring a feminist lens to bear on the issues in philosophy of science that concerned me. It wasn’t until 1989, the Chacmool conference on The Archaeology of Gender (University of Calgary), that my feminist and archaeological interests converged in a direct way. I’d been puzzled that, although I knew a number of archeologists who were self-identified feminists – like Meg Conkey, who I’d studied with as a graduate student – there had been no very visible formation of a feminist or gender research program in archaeology, like those that had taken shape in sociocultural anthropology and in history in the 1960s. This was especially striking in North America where archaeologists are typically trained in departments of anthropology so archeologists who were in graduate school in the U.S. and Canada in the 1970s and 1980s would have taken courses in sociocultural anthropology at a time when feminist perspectives were having a real impact on the field. And yet somehow none of this got traction in archaeology until the late 1980s. One catalyst was the 1989 Chacmool conference, a large public meeting that drew participants from around the world, and another was a smaller working conference, “Engendering Archaeology,” that preceded it in 1988, organized by Joan Gero and Meg Conkey. These resulted in publications in the early 1990s, like Engendering Archaeology (Gero and Conkey 1991), that laid the foundations for what came to be known as “gender archaeology.” I was enormously lucky to have had the opportunity to participate in these meetings; I got to see first hand the formation of an exciting research program in archaeology – one in which archaeologists were taking up exactly the issues I’d been thinking about in the context of teaching feminist philosophy and doing activist work on feminist issues. Interviewer 2: In your discussions on standpoint theory, you propose a new form of objectivity that must be contextualized and also be critically reflexive, confuting an orthodox or positivist account of impartiality and also the relativist view. Is the objectivity that you propose universal? If it's not, what is, in your opinion, the difference between a contextualized and a relativist form of objectivity? And then there's another related question. From your standpoint, is the objectivity of archeological theories a consequence of social and political interactions among researchers or is it constituted by those interactions? What we are trying to grasp here is the way that objectivity can be modified to include feminist standpoints. Alison Wylie: There’s been ongoing debate among feminist and critical race theorists about whether we shouldn’t just ditch the language of objectivity altogether because it carries so much baggage – in the form of the kind of orthodox universalizing ideal you refer to – or whether we should, instead, keep talking about “objectivity” and reconceptualize it in terms that do what you describe: that capture a robust ideal of epistemic success but have the resources to make sense of the contributions of situated knowers, including politically motivated and ethically engaged epistemic agents. The sort of generic conception of objectivity that's typically invoked in archaeology, for example, trades on an assumption that cognitive and non-cognitive, social values can be sharply distinguished in something like the terms Hugh Lacey defends, but it doesn’t disentangle impartiality from neutrality and autonomy in the sophisticated way Lacey does. Objectivity is conceptualized in terms that read out of account any choice of “strategy,” as Lacey refers to it; there’s no room to recognize the role of background assumptions, goals or contextual factors in setting the framework within which a research program unfolds. It’s assumed that there is must be some self-warranting foundation of evidence and some universal set of norms that define what counts as rationality – as good reasoning from empirical evidence – regardless of research goals or strategy, otherwise all is lost. Even though no one has been able to nail down exactly what these come to, the fear is that if we abandon faith that our knowledge is grounded in unimpeachable empirical foundations or universal norms of rationality, we have no choice but to accept self-undermining relativism. There must be some set of standards such that, when they’re met, knowledge claims can be accepted as “objectively true” full stop: they hold trans-contextually, trans-historically; they approximate to the proverbial “view from nowhere,” a view that is not inflected by any local interests or situated values, any of the choices that set the terms of a research strategy. This set of ideals typically presupposes a highly abstract and individualistic conception of epistemic agency. Objective knowledge will only be realized if epistemic agents can transcend the push and pull of contextual factors. The social relations that make it possible for them, as individuals, to know anything, that constitute them as epistemic agents, are systematically disappeared because any contextual, non-cognitive factors are assumed to contaminate epistemic autonomy and impartiality. What a properly objective agent knows is just what any rational agent would know, given the evidence and proper exercise of reason.   5 Scientiae  Studia  2014   This radically decontextualizing ideal of objectivity has done important work as a basis for contesting various forms of epistemic dogmatism and authoritarianism. But as Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison show in Objectivity (2007), it is of late and highly specific origin. It is a creature of the late nineteenth century, arising in scientific contexts where mechanical technologies of recording were instituted that displaced the skilled craftwork of expert observers and experimenters, producing data that seem impervious to human bias because they appear to be generated without human intervention. Daston and Galison argue that this formulation actually inverts earlier ideals of objectivity which were originally associated with ethical and aesthetic judgment; transposed to a scientific context the really objective knower was the highly skilled scientific observer who could hand-draw botanical specimens, for example, capturing their essence as representative of their species. It was a discerning knower, not a disengaged knower who could guarantee objectivity. In short, objectivity as a concept has been understood in a great many different ways. One way of thinking about objectivity as a norm and a concept that takes this historical perspective seriously is to see it as an honorific: when you say that a knower or an item of knowledge is “objective” you are recognizing epistemic success. But what counts as epistemic success is defined, not in terms of some context-transcendent set of standards, but in opposition to whatever form of epistemic failure is most salient, most feared in a given context. The epistemic virtues that are prized, and valorized as marks of the objective, are those that are seen to be proof against a particular set of epistemic failings. As this line of argument is developed by Jill Fellows, in a recent Ph.D thesis (2011), if the dominant worry is that knowers will distort or misrepresent the data they report in ways that reflect their interests and preconceptions – whether this is conscious or unconscious – then a decontextualizing conception of objectivity that emphasizes mechanisms for counteracting this kind of bias will be especially compelling. If the kind of epistemic failure that matters is an inability to grasp an objective reality that lies beyond what ordinary, common sense makes available to us – the reproduction of ignorance – then the virtues of skilled, elite observers is likely to be emphasized in dominant conceptions of objectivity. The point is, then, that ideals of objectivity are themselves context-specific and continuously evolving. Nobody has succeeded in identifying skyhooks (in the form of universal norms of rationality) or epistemic foundations (in the form of empirical data, sensory inputs) that are sufficiently robust to stabilize a universal ideal of objectivity. So rather than continuing the quixotic search for a viable articulation of the traditional (universal) conception of objectivity, I recommend that we take this historical lesson on board and ask what particular epistemic virtues are most salient in the contexts in which we are actually producing, ratifying, and relying upon knowledge claims. I reject the assumption that, if we don’t persist in the quest for universal epistemic ideals, the only alternative is to accept a hyper-relativism that undercuts any principled epistemic adjudication of knowledge claims. What I’m urging is that we get serious about what makes for better or worse knowledge in particular contexts of inquiry and for particular purposes. In fact, we have excellent resources on which we can draw to calibrate the epistemic virtues we invoke and to assess the effectiveness of specific procedures for realizing them. It's a matter of making use of all the strategies we rely on when we want to figure out whether a knowledge claim is going to be a good basis for action and applying them not only to first-order objects of inquiry, but to scientific practice itself. This means treating the sciences as a form of situated practice, being explicit about their goals and how, in particular contexts, the epistemic virtues that inform judgments of epistemic success will be interpreted and applied. So what I’m recommending is that we frame ideals of objectivity in rigorously contextualized terms: that we make explicit the virtues that have been entrenched as proxies for objectivity in various research programs, subject them to critical scrutiny, and hold them accountable to specific purposes and uses. This is what I have in mind in the last section of the paper I gave yesterday on gender research in archaeology: that its advocates should be prepared to challenge the traditional ideals of objectivity invoked by their critics. There are alternatives to untenable epistemic foundationalism and universalism that don’t involve embracing self-undermining relativism. Interviewer 2: Yeah. From your standpoint, is the objectivity of archeological theories a consequence of social and political interactions among researchers or is it constituted by those interactions?   6 Scientiae  Studia  2014   Alison Wylie: Is there any way to distinguish these possibilities? Consider Longino’s procedural account of objectivity: that we ratify as objective those knowledge claims that arise from the right kind of collective process of critical scrutiny. On one reading this is an argument for being explicit about the fact that, in the end, we are only ever in a position to assert that, “under these (current) best possible processes of deliberation, these are the knowledge claims that we ratify as trustworthy, action-supporting”; there is nothing more we can add when we valorize a knowledge claim as “objective.” I would add to this a further contextualizing claim: that we only ever ratify knowledge claims as useful or trustworthy for particular purposes, not as “true” or “objective” or reliable, full-stop. So objectivity is both constituted by and a consequence of the procedures we’ve developed to build, test, assess, and ratify or reject knowledge claims. But I take it that what’s behind your question is a concern that, on a procedural account, there’s no basis for ever making the case that a claim ratified as objective by a community – following its own best practices – is not, in fact, objective. I don’t see that this follows. In fact, characterizing objectivity in proceduralist terms signals a recognition of the fallibility of even our best current knowledge. It puts us in a position to make the retrospective judgment that a community process of deliberation has gone badly wrong. I see at least three possible grounds for making the judgment that knowledge claims that have been ratified as objective at one point have later proven to be limited or distorted or unreliable. One is that that the community did not follow its own best practices; the process of ratification was flawed, often because of the play of non-cognitive values – social and political factors – that insulated favored views from criticism. Another is that the community ratified knowledge claims that were fit for then-current purposes, but these purposes changed; risks of error that seemed acceptable at one point are later found to be unacceptable, either on empirical grounds or for social, pragmatic reasons. And a third is that the community standards themselves are found wanting; critical scrutiny may reveal that they’re systematically biased in some previously unrecognized way, or methodological refinements in a research tradition may raise the bar epistemically. Feminist critiques of science are a rich source of negative object lessons of all three kinds. Lisa Lloyd’s book on Bias in the Science of Evolution (2005) is a sobering catalogue of missteps by which a research community accepted on faith assumptions that fit with their colloquial wisdom about women’s sexual response and their selectionist presuppositions, failed to apply their own standards of empirical adequacy to these assumptions, and vigorously defended the results against all criticsm. But often the most worrisome type of error is more subtle, more inadvertent. A well-intentioned research community might do an excellent job of rigorously testing a set of hypotheses that all presuppose a sexist or racist or classist conception of their subject matter; they provide good reasons for ratifying one as the best on offer, but they don’t consider any alternatives that lie outside this limited conceptual framework. Crucially, they might not even be aware that they’re making these presuppositions, they’re so much taken for granted, with the result that the claims they ratify have tremendous staying power. As on Lacey’s account of research strategies, a shared understanding of the goals of inquiry comes with substantive assumptions – for example, assumptions about the nature of the subject domain, and along with these, about what counts as appropriate evidence and salient critique. The result is that the research community very often doesn’t pursue lines of inquiry that could produce counter-evidence, and often doesn’t recognize them as legitimate when pursued by others, so its members aren’t responsive to criticism they should take seriously. If admission to the research community is conditional on internalizing these shared norms, there may be no one with standing in the community who has the critical resources to recognize what’s being assumed, and what’s being left out, distorted, misrecognized as a consequence.2 In these cases, it may only be when social conditions shift and outsider perspectives are brought to bear that the limitations of entrenched norms become visible. Perhaps political action puts pressure on a research community to rethink its framework, as in the case of the women’s health movement and AIDS/HIV activism, or the range of perspectives represented within the community shifts with the influx of women and underrepresented miniorities. I discuss a range of such examples in my APA Presidential address, arguing that they have been a key catalyst for the development of feminist standpoint theory (Wylie 2012).                                                                                                                           2 This is a point made with particular clarity by Douglas in Science, Policy and the Value-free Ideal (2009: 172-173).   7 Scientiae  Studia  2014   So I do want to defend a conception of objectivity that doesn’t insulate whatever comes out the other end of a deliberative process from critical appraisal. But the key to understanding how it is that we can take distance from procedural norms and recognize error in claims that have been ratified as objective is not to invoke transcendent, universal standards and foundations. It is, rather, to subject these procedures and the norms themselves to the kind of critical scrutiny that can ensure not only that they are, as I said earlier, fit to purpose, but also that they are continuously updated in light of what’s learned from experience about their reliability. In short, I would argue that you can expose error and bias that arises from socio-political interactions without appealing to an idealized conception of objectivity. But this requires you to recognize that non-cognitive factors are not just a source of compromising bias; they are also enabling. Indeed, often they are the key factor that makes transformative criticism possible. What’s needed are community practices that make standpoint-specific interests explicit – that put them on the table for debate – rather than disappearing them behind a screen of presumed neutrality. What I argue for is an account of “strong objectivity,” as Sandra Harding refers to it (1991), articulated in proceduralist terms along lines suggested by Longino (2002).3 Spelling out how this works will require enormously detail-intensive case studies of actual practice and a great deal of second order research on what makes for reliable deliberative processes – ones that build in consideration of context and are subject to continuous updating. That’s a challenge you all will need to address; it's down to you. Interviewer 2: Another question is how does this notion of objectivity interact with similar ideas developed in the 1960s in Philosophy and the Social Sciences and especially in those studies about the effects of domination structures of class and race on the production of knowledge? What are the specificities of a feminist critique to science? And then I would also like to ask you if you can tell us about some cases or evidences of violence and / or inequalities / inequities among genders in Archeology. Alison Wylie: As a subject of Archeology… Interviewer 2: Yeah… Alison Wylie: OK, so the first question: connections with earlier conceptions of objectivity that have already been articulated by philosophers and social scientists. There certainly is a strong resonance between the contextual account of objectivity that I’m exploring – especially as formulated by feminist standpoint theorists – and what critical theorists of various kinds have had to say about the production of knowledge, especially those working within historical materialist, Marxist traditions of thinking about knowledge. The point of connection is a shared recognition that what knowers are likely to be attuned to, what they have access to observationally and what use they can make of evidence is deeply conditioned by the social, material conditions of their lives. I’ve described this as a structural “situated knowledge” thesis (2003, 2012). In a Marxist tradition claims about the situatedness of knowers were cashed out in terms of a substantive theory of class structure, which also gives you a very strong “inversion thesis”: the claim that, by virtue of their class position, the proletariat are most likely to understand exactly how profit is generated, to see relations of production for what they are and to recognize their exploitative effects – realities they know from their lived experience that are likely to be inscrutable to those who benefit from an exploitative and hierarchical system. The challenge for feminists was to make sense of how gender could constitute a standpoint that sustains something like these situated epistemic advantages; I’m thinking of Hartsock’s 1983 paper, “Developing the Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism." Hartsock, and feminist standpoint theorists of the 1970s and 1980s generally, were immediately accused of being essentialists: taking gender identity as a given and as foundational to all other structural difference. I don't think Hartsock does any such thing.4 As an historical materialist she emphasizes the contingency of sex/gender systems and their epistemic effects. And although the                                                                                                                           3 This may seem counter-intuitive, inasmuch as Harding originally described feminist standpoint theory in contrast to feminist empiricism. See Intemann (2010) for an account of how these positions complement one another. 4 I make this argument in my Pacific APA Presidential Address (Wylie 2012).   8 Scientiae  Studia  2014   language of intersectionality wasn't much in use until the 1990s, she is clearly thinking in intersectional terms; she’s asking “how do class and gender and race and ethnicity co-constitute one another?” – contingently, in specific historical contexts – and what impact does this have on epistemic capacities? This gives you a much more complicated picture of standpoint theory than is generally credited. It means that you can't appeal to a particular location that automatically generates privileged insight. But you can argue that, if these social divisions make a difference to our material conditions of life, who we interact with, how we interact, what work we do, what training we get – how could they not make a difference to our capacities as knowers? Even if these social structures are contingent and intersectional, they nonetheless have very real epistemic effects – effects that are not just idiosyncratic. The burden of proof should be on those who reject standpoint theory to show that the structural conditions that shape our lives have no systematic impact on our capacities and standing as knowers. These days we can draw on a rich body of empirical psychology that documents how we internalize cognitive schemas that track social inequalities, and how these shape our expectations – and our observational and inferential capacities (Valian 1999). Yesterday I mentioned an annual review article on “Gender in Psychology,” co-authored by Abby Stewart (Stewart and McDermott 2004). She makes the point that what we’re internalizing with gender schemas is a set of heuristics for navigating power relations so, not surprisingly, those who are in subdominant positions in a workplace know a lot more about their superiors than they do about them. They have to, if they’re going to successfully navigate a hierarchically structured social landscape where they’re at a disadvantage. Patricia Hill Collins uses the example of what housekeepers know to illustrate this kind of insider-outsider knowledge (1991). Black women domestics – the focus of Collins’ discussion – are disadvantaged in social contexts that are elite by race as well as class, and they’re further discounted as knowers because of their gender, but they have to understand the psychological profiles, the motivations and power dynamics of those who are insiders to this elite world, often much more acutely than do those they work for. I made use of a particularly vivid example of this that figures in a murder mystery by Barbara Neely called Blanche on the Lam (1992). Neely has her character Blanche tell you exactly what she knows about the white community and how she knows it: that she has to be wise and alert, and also that she has all kinds of opportunities to hear and observe, not only because she takes out the garbage and makes the beds, but because she’s invisible to her employers; they carry on their lives in her presence, making her privy to things they would never do or say in public, or in the presence of others in their social world. I gather that mystery enthusiasts find the Blanche mysteries pretty pedantic but for just this reason they were invaluable for me (Wylie 2003). The same kind of point is made by Uma Narayan in terms of the example of line workers in a factory in the Maquiadora district: what they know about how profit is extracted from their labor that managers and owners, and certainly consumers, typically don’t know. But Narayan also contrasts the epistemic advantage evident in these kinds of cases with the disadvantages that are also imposed by oppressive social conditions (1988). These are, then, the kinds of examples of differential access to knowledge, of contingent epistemic advantage, that feminist standpoint theorists draw on and that resonate with the sociological and philosophical literature that I think you’re referring to. Interviewer 2: Yes, but I would like you to talk about violence and inequities as a subject to archaeology. Alison Wylie: In Archeology… this takes us back to the question you raised earlier about how a gender archeology can illuminate inequalities in the past and how this can be put to work addressing inequalities in the contemporary world. One of the things that's wonderful about archeology is that, hard as it is to work with archeological data – and it's really hard – you can sometimes tease out lines of evidence that make it impossible to maintain the comfortable mythologies about the past that underpin our sense of self, our place in the world, our cultural and national identities, and our social relations, including gender relations. So I'm answering the second part of your question first: archeology can be a powerful resource for challenging what we take for granted. It can show us that key features of the contemporary world that we treat as inevitable haven't always been this way, that they’re contingent and could have been otherwise, that they have histories and consequences that are sometimes starkly at odds with the values we think they embody, and that there’s   9 Scientiae  Studia  2014   a much wider range of possibilities for living humanly rich, productive lives than we’d imagined. These insights may not tell us how to effectively intervene in the present, but they can quite powerfully destabilize assumptions about the past – how things have always been, why they have to be as they are – that legitimate contemporary structures of inequality. One example of this is the archaeology that ultimately got done on the New York city African Burying Ground in, a 17tt-18th century site with over 400 burials that was discovered in 1991 when the U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) began building a new federal office building in lower Manhattan. The GSA had got approval to proceed; the necessary background studies evidently showed that there weren’t like to be any archeological remains on the site that would need to be protected. Even though there was lots of historical documentation that a large non-consecrated burying ground and public space had existed in the area, there had been so much construction that it seemed unlikely that any original cultural deposits survived. So it was a real shock when excavation for the foundations began to expose human skeletal material, and not just a few isolated burials: over 400 burials, when all was said and done. Somehow the GSA had missed the fact that there was a back alley in the area where the historic African Burying Ground had existed that had never been built on. This turned out to be the oldest Colonial era cemetery of its scale that had been found, and it was unique in that it served African American slaves and Native Americans who were excluded from consecrated church cemeteries; it is an extraordinary archeological resource. The federal government sent in a forensic crew to recover the remains as they were exposed; they didn’t want to stop the construction project. This generated a huge public outcry, and what was at issue was not just their failure to protect the site, but the fact that the forensic team was just going to do the type of race, gender, age profiling of the human remains that they use for crime victims. This was a strikingly limited research program and one that was inherently flawed, inasmuch as they didn’t have the skeletal reference collections they’d need to do even this with any accuracy. The GSA was forced to stop excavation, and ultimately appointed Michael Blakey, one of very few African American physical anthropologists who was then at Howard University (a traditionally black college outside D.C.), to develop a research plan and direct a project worthy of the site. A vast amount of data has been recovered and analyzed and published at this point,5 and the research Blakey oversaw included a whole battery of sophisticated studies designed to get at the social and material dimensions of the lives of those buried in this cemetery: macro-skeletal analysis for markers of disease, dietary stress, activity patterns; isotope and trace element analysis that makes it possible to reconstruct lifetime dietary profiles; analyses of the artifacts buried with human remains, and of the layout and structure of the cemetery. From the dietary profiles they could identify individuals who were born in Africa and had spent time in the Caribbean before they were transported to New York. Some also had evidence of teeth filing typical of African origins; Blakey and his team drew on Caribbean and African traditional knowledge to interpret these features and also the symbolic significance of beads and other artifacts as elements of, for example, Yorúbà traditions that had survived the Middle Passage. So that’s evidence of the Atlantic slave trade in full swing, forcibly removing people from Africa and shifting them from Caribbean and southern plantations to industrial labor contexts in the colonial northeast. But it’s the bone analysis where you see graphic evidence of violence: gunshot and stabbing wounds in some cases, and also striking evidence of the everyday violence of industrial slavery. So, for example, massively developed muscle and ligament attachments bear witness to the repetitive, heavy physical labor that went into building virtually all of lower Manhattan in the area that's now the famous Wall Street financial district. And it wasn’t just adults. I remember Blakey describing a cervical fracture in the skeleton of a 12-year-old boy, most likely a consequence, he argued, of carrying heavy loads of building material on his head as a porter or laborer. So archaeological evidence of violence and radical inequality – slavery – is quite literally written in the bones to those whose remains were excavated from the African Burying Ground. This was really significant, not just archeologically but also as an intervention in the political discourse about racism in New York. It disrupts any comfortable dissociation of the U.S. northeast from the realities of colonial era slavery; it challenges the assumption that, because the North fought for abolition in the civil war, it wasn’t                                                                                                                           5 For an overview, see Blakey (2011). The full report is available online at: http://www.gsa.gov/portal/content/249941   10