Internationalizing sela rn ieg su editoage a Teaching, Localizing rs: snd g ue wloba Learning right alizatio nd hn e le An Examination of English n k e Language Teaching Reforms lly -h o and English Use in China lm e s paul mcpherron Language and Globalization Series Editors Sue Wright University of Portsmouth Portsmouth, United Kingdom Helen Kelly-Holmes University of Limerick Limerick, Ireland In the context of current political and social developments, where the national group is not so clearly defined and delineated, the state language not so clearly dominant in every domain, and cross-border flows and transfers affects more than a small elite, new patterns of language use will develop. This series aims to provide a framework for reporting on and analysing the lingustic outcomes of globalization and localization. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14830 Paul McPherron Internationalizing Teaching, Localizing Learning An Examination of English Language Teaching Reforms and English Use in China Paul McPherron Hunter College City University of New York New York, USA Language and Globalization ISBN 978-1-137-51953-5 ISBN 978-1-137-51954-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-51954-2 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016956485 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017 The author(s) has/have asserted their right(s) to be identified as the author(s) of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. This work is subject to copyright. 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Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Cover illustration: © Zhijun Sun, TAO Images Limited / Alamy Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Macmillan Publishers Ltd The registered company address is: The Campus, 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW, United Kingdom This book is dedicated to my father and mother, Robert and Phyllis McPherron, who taught me the importance of listening before speaking Preface: First Impressions: “I Don’t Love Learning English” English has been taught in China for over 300 years (Gil and Adamson, 2011), but since 1984 and the opening of the Chinese economy, English learning and teaching has been made central to Chinese education pol- icy in order to meet the needs of the “four modernizations” in agricul- ture, industry, national defense, and science and technology (Mao and Min, 2004). Even more recently as the nation prepared for hosting the Olympics in 2008 and broadening economic and trade links, English was pushed into the lives of even more Chinese citizens, with English introduced at Grade 3 in 2001 (9 years old) in the national curriculum standards set by the Ministry of Education (MOE) and in earlier grades at many private academies and urban school systems (Graddol, 2013). Further, an MOE mandate in 2004 stipulated that 5–10% of all courses at universities be offered in English with the long-term goal of over 20 % of undergraduate courses in English (Wang, 2006, cited in Hu and McKay, 2012). Due to these various language policies, by the mid-2000s estimates range from over 25 million college students learning English in China (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2014) to over 115 million total students, from kindergarten through university, studying English by the mid-2000s in China (Wen and Hu, 2007). As scholars have pointed out, there is a difference between a learner and a user of English (McKay, 2002; Yang, 2006), but generally it is estimated that between 300 and 350 million people throughout China have studied and used English in vii viii Preface: First Impressions: “I Don’t Love Learning English” their daily life to some degree (Honna, 2006; Zhang, 2005), creating a situation in which there are more English speakers in China than the total population of the USA, Britain, and Canada combined (Chuanbo, 2013). Thus, from a macro-policy perspective and in terms of sheer num- bers of English learners, it would appear that the Chinese nation has embraced English as an index of global identity and future superpower status and Chinese learners have embraced English learning as central to their future careers and professional lives. At the same time, during my first semester as an English instructor at a university in southern China in the fall of 2004, referred to throughout the book by the pseudonym China Southern University (CSU), a student with the English name Guy wrote an email to me explaining his ambiguous relationship with English. To be honest, I don’t think many Chinese students really love English, include me. I don’t love learning English, I learn it just because I need it, sometimes—maybe I need it more in the future—and because sometimes I found it interesting to use a language which is different from my own, from which I can hide myself and “translate” myself to be a different per- son, another ego. (Personal communication, October, 2004) Guy went on to write that many of his classmates were tired of the speak- ing focus of the classes at CSU, and he suggested fewer classroom speaking tasks and more focused writing help. I was immediately challenged by Guy’s unsolicited and direct comments about his reasons for learning English and his problems with my focus on activities that drew on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Learning Activities (TBLT). I asked myself many questions: why did he write to me, the so-called “foreign” teacher, and not one of the other, “local” Chinese teachers?; did he want me to know something, as the foreigner in China, about what students really thought of my classes?; was he resisting my teaching or more widely the university’s policies that require all students to advance to a high proficiency in English?; and, finally, it may not be necessary to “love” learning English in order to do well in class (and Guy was a top student), but what exactly did Guy mean by “need”? The email provided important insight into my classroom at the time and Guy and I have since become good friends, often discussing his ideas about educational reforms in China and his desire to Preface: First Impressions: “I Don’t Love Learning English” ix make studying ancient Chinese characters a requirement for all university students; but the questions that emerged from Guy’s email—about global- ization, English Language Teaching (ELT), and identity (both mine and Guy’s)—remain. In many ways, these questions were the catalyst for my research projects in China and the writing of this book. When I arrived at CSU in 2004, I had experience teaching English to high-school students in Sibiu, Romania as a volunteer in the Peace Corps, and I had taught writing and oral presentation courses to undergraduate and graduate students at UC Davis during my Master’s in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (MA-TESOL) program. I also had experi- ence of teaching in US public schools as an English Education major at the University of Illinois, where I finished my undergraduate degree and received a teaching credential for teaching English in grades 6–12. In all of my teaching experiences, I had always viewed myself as “student-cen- tered” and politically engaged in the needs of my students. Reading Paolo Freire as an undergraduate student inspired me to pursue a career in edu- cation, and my readings of critical pedagogy scholars in graduate school such as Sarah Benesch, Suresh Canagarajah, Brian Morgan, and Vaidehi Ramanathan furthered my desire to create socially conscious and problem- posing activities that connected with the lives of my students. As Freire (1970/2000) writes, I envisioned leading my students “to come to feel like masters of their thinking” (p. 124). Thus, Guy’s email—in which he later asked me to concentrate on providing grammatical correction on writing assignments rather than on speaking activities—challenged me on several levels; it not only moved me to question the role of English proficiency in my students’ lives but also my role as a teacher in the Chinese ELT context and what kind of teacher my students both expected and needed. Could I or should I be the critical and consciousness-raising teacher that I envi- sioned? Perhaps my students did not want me there in the first place and did not want to learn the main content, English, that I was paid to teach. During my interviews for my application to become a Peace Corps volunteer, the interviewers emphasized that the Peace Corps would only send teachers to countries and schools that requested volunteers, and in some ways, I justified joining the Peace Corps because I felt that I had to be doing more good than harm if I worked with local teachers who wanted my support and teaching expertise. At CSU, however, is was not x Preface: First Impressions: “I Don’t Love Learning English” clear to me that it was necessary for me, a foreign teacher with little pro- ficiency in Mandarin Chinese before arriving in 2004, to teach students like Guy, who just did not seem to want me to teach them. Answers to my questions were complicated by the fact that at least outwardly, the univer- sity and larger CSU community appeared to be doing everything possible to make “foreign” teachers feel comfortable and part of the local commu- nity. I was given a rent-free apartment near campus that included a weekly maid service, I shared an office cubicle with a “local” Chinese counterpart with whom I coordinated one of the course levels, and the department organized numerous excursions, parties, and professional-development activities for the English teaching faculty, such as a Thanksgiving dinner and a trip to a local hot-springs resort. Some of my students may have been questioning why they were learning English from me, but my col- leagues and the English Language Center (ELC) that housed ELT pro- grams were more than hospitable, and despite my trepidation, I could envision working at CSU for many productive and enjoyable years. After one year of teaching at CSU from 2004–2005, with the numer- ous questions sparked by Guy’s email still challenging me, I decided to pursue a PhD program in applied linguistics to further think through the complex contexts and motivations for learning English around the world. At the time, I imagined that I would focus on university English learners similar to the undergraduate and international students I had taught during my MA program; however, students such as Guy, and the Chinese ELT context, with its internationalizing spaces and desires, as exemplified by the CSU campus, fascinated, perplexed and intrigued me, and I returned in 2007 to complete data collection for my dissertation and again in 2010 and 2013 as a teacher and researcher after the comple- tion of my PhD. This book is thus the culmination of these numerous trips and stays at CSU over the past 10 years as a teacher, researcher, and member of the CSU community. As detailed, examined, and analyzed throughout that next chapters, CSU is a fascinating place, as it offers a front-row seat to many key issues and processes that define how we live and work in the twenty-first century. As seen in the spectacle of students singing Broadway show tunes with study-abroad students from Romania, Israel, and the Philippines at a festival celebrating English learning, and the presentations given there by famous journalists and researchers from