INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THEORY AND THE MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS OF THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA, 1949-2002 By ROBICHAUD Christopher Ryan September 2017 Dissertation Presented to the Higher Degree Committee of Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Copyright © 2017 by Christopher Ryan Robichaud All rights reserved Table of Contents FIGURES AND TABLES .............................................................................................................. v FIGURES ........................................................................................................................................ v TABLES ...................................................................................................................................... vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................... viii RESEARCH METHOD .............................................................................................................. xii How best to pursue understanding ...................................................................................... xvii CHRONOLOGY OF MAJOR EVENTS IN CHINESE FOREIGN RELATIONS 1944-2002 ...................................................................................................................................................... xxv ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... xxix INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 WHY DOES IT MATTER? ................................................................................................................ 4 FROM WHENCE THIS QUERY WAS BORN ....................................................................................... 7 OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................................. 8 STRUCTURE OF THIS DISSERTATION ........................................................................................... 10 DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................................... 16 China and ‘Chinese-ness’ ...................................................................................................... 16 Nationalism ............................................................................................................................ 19 LIMITATIONS .............................................................................................................................. 21 CHAPTER ONE: HISTORY, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, AND THE CHINESE EXPERIENCE .............................................................................................................................. 23 HISTORY AS IDENTITY ................................................................................................................ 23 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN HISTORY .................................................................................. 26 CHINA AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ............................................. 34 CHAPTER TWO: FOREIGN DEVILS, THE QING & REPUBLICAN CHINA’S FOREIGN POLICY ..................................................................................................................... 46 THE LATE QING: NECESSITY OF INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION ................................................. 47 REPUBLICAN CHINA ................................................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER THREE: CCP EXPERIENCES IN FOREIGN AFFAIRS PRIOR TO OCTOBER 1, 1949 ....................................................................................................................... 57 ONE THING’S END IS ANOTHER’S BEGINNING ............................................................................. 64 The unraveling ....................................................................................................................... 65 Never trust a bear to do anything except bite ........................................................................ 71 Unraveled and then divided ................................................................................................... 74 Chinese independence ............................................................................................................ 81 EXPERIENCE GIVES RISE TO THEORY ......................................................................................... 85 CHAPTER FOUR: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THEORY AND THE FOREIGN MINISTRY DURING THE MAO ZEDONG ERA ................................................................... 91 THE STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS UNDER MAO ZEDONG ...................................................................................................................................... 95 The Foreign Ministry from 1949-1966 ................................................................................ 101 iii The Foreign Ministry from 1966-1976: The Cultural Revolution ....................................... 104 THE SELECTED WORKS OF MAO ZEDONG AND ZHOU ENALI .................................................. 108 The Selected Works of Mao Zedong ..................................................................................... 111 Selected Works of Zhou Enlai .............................................................................................. 123 HISTORICAL SURVEY: 1949-1976 ............................................................................................ 134 1949-1960 ............................................................................................................................ 134 1961-1970 ............................................................................................................................ 146 1971-1976 ............................................................................................................................ 152 CHAPTER FIVE: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THEORY AND THE FOREIGN MINISTRY DURING THE DENG XIAOPING ERA ............................................................ 155 THE STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE FOREIGN MINISTRY UNDER DENG XIAOPING . 155 THE SELECTED WORKS OF DENG XIAOPING ............................................................................ 159 HISTORICAL SURVEY: 1977-1993 ............................................................................................ 170 CHAPTER SIX: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THEORY AND THE FOREIGN MINISTRY DURING THE JIANG ZEMIN ERA .................................................................. 185 THE STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE FOREIGN MINISTRY UNDER JIANG ZEMIN ...... 186 CATMA Analysis of On Diplomacy ..................................................................................... 189 THE SELECTED WORKS OF JIANG ZEMIN ................................................................................. 191 HISTORICAL SURVEY: 1994 – 2002 .......................................................................................... 200 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................... 212 APPENDIX I ............................................................................................................................... 222 APPENDIX II: CATMA QUERY RESULTS FOR SELECTED WORKS OF MAO ZEDONG, PRE-OCTOBER 1, 1949 ......................................................................................... 223 APPENDIX III: CATMA QUERY RESULTS FOR SELECTED WORKS OF MAO ZEDONG, POST-OCTOBER 1, 1949 ...................................................................................... 227 APPENDIX IV: CATMA QUERY RESULTS FOR SELECTED WORKS OF ZHOU ENLAI, VOLUME I PRE-OCTOBER 1, 1949 ........................................................................ 230 APPENDIX V: CATMA QUERY RESULTS FOR SELECTED WORKS OF ZHOU ENLAI, VOLUME II POST-OCTOBER 1, 1949 .................................................................... 233 APPENDIX VI: CATMA QUERY RESULTS FOR MAO ZEDONG ON DIPLOMACY 236 APPENDIX VII: CATMA QUERY RESULTS FOR SELECTED WORKS OF DENG XIAOPING, PRE- OCTOBER 1, 1949 ..................................................................................... 241 APPENDIX VIII: CATMA QUERY RESULTS FOR SELECTED WORKS OF DENG XIAOPING, POST-OCTOBER 1, 1949 ................................................................................... 243 APPENDIX IX: CATMA QUERY RESULTS FOR SELECTED WORKS OF JIANG ZEMIN, VOLUMES I & II ........................................................................................................ 246 APPENDIX X: INFORMED CONSENT AND WRITTEN INTERVIEW .......................... 250 APPENDIX XI: SPECIAL NOTE ON LIU SHAOQI ............................................................ 256 APPENDIX XII: SPECIAL NOTE ON CHEN YUN ............................................................. 265 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 273 iv Figures and Tables Figures Figure 4.1: Constituent factors for the creation and evolution of ideas in the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs. ...................................................................................... 95 Figure 4.2: The relative position of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs within the decision- making structure ........................................................................................................ 99 Figure 4.3: Word-cloud generated based on the keyword query results from CATMA for the Pre-October 1, 1949 Selected Works of Mao Zedong (generated using wordclouds.com.) .................................................................................................... 112 Figure 4.4: Word-cloud generated based on the keyword query results from CATMA for the Post-October 1, 1949 Selected Works of Mao Zedong (generated using wordclouds.com.) .................................................................................................... 114 Figure 4.5: Word-cloud generated based on the keyword query results from CATMA for the Pre-October 1, 1949 Selected Works of Zhou Enlai (generated using wordclouds.com.) .................................................................................................... 124 Figure 4.6: Word-cloud generated based on the keyword query results from CATMA for the post-October 1, 1949 Selected Works of Zhou Enlai (generated using wordclouds.com.) .................................................................................................... 126 Figure 4.7: Google Books Ngram Viewer results for the word ‘globalism’, http://books.google.com/ngrams ............................................................................. 129 Figure 5.1: Word-cloud generated based on the keyword query results from CATMA for the Pre-October 1, 1949 Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping (generated using wordclouds.com.) .................................................................................................... 161 v Figure 5.2: Word-cloud generated based on the keyword query results from CATMA for the Post-October 1, 1949 Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping (generated using wordclouds.com.) .................................................................................................... 163 Figure 5.3: Google Books Ngram Viewer results for the word ‘hegemonism’, http://books.google.com/ngrams ............................................................................. 165 Figure 5.4: Google Books Ngram Viewer results for the word ‘national security’, ....... 166 Figure 6.1: Word-cloud generated based on the keyword query results from CATMA for Mao Zedong On Diplomacy (generated using wordclouds.com.) .......................... 190 Figure 6.2: Word-cloud generated based on the keyword query results from CATMA for the Selected Works of Jiang Zemin (generated using wordclouds.com.) ............... 193 Figure 6.3: Google Books Ngram Viewer results for the word ‘globalization’, http://books.google.com/ngrams ............................................................................. 197 Figure 8.1: Word-cloud generated based on the keyword query results from CATMA for the pre-October1, 1949 Selected Works of Liu Shaoqi (generated using wordclouds.com) ..................................................................................................... 257 Figure 8.2: Word-cloud generated based on the keyword query results from CATMA for the post-October 1, 1949 Selected Works of Liu Shaoqi (generated using wordclouds.com). .................................................................................................... 258 Figure 9.1: Word-cloud generated based on the kyword query results from CATMA for the pre-October 1, 1949 Selected Works of Chen Yun (generated using wordclouds.com). .................................................................................................... 266 vi Figure 9.2: Word-cloud generated based on the keyword query results from CATMA for the post-October 1, 1949 Selected Works of Chen Yun (generated usgin wordclouds.com). .................................................................................................... 267 Tables Table 4.1: Department structure of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China ..................................................................................................... 97 Table 4.2: Summary of source data gleaned from CATMA for pre-October 1, 1949 selected works of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai ..................................................... 110 Table 4.3: Summary of source data gleaned from CATMA for post-October 1, 1949 selected works of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai ..................................................... 110 Table 5.1: Summary of source data gleaned from CATMA for pre-October 1, 1949 selected works of Deng Xiaoping ........................................................................... 160 Table 5.2: Summary of source data gleaned from CATMA for post-October 1, 1949 selected works of Deng Xiaoping ........................................................................... 160 Table 6.1: Summary of source data gleaned from CATMA for the selected works of Jiang Zemin ...................................................................................................................... 192 Table 7.1: Top CATMA query results for Selected Works of Mao, Zhou, Deng, and Jiang in proximate positioning ......................................................................................... 217 vii Acknowledgements Writing a large research paper is, more often than not, a lonely experience. Many hours each day, for several years were spent huddled with texts of various kinds. Those times I was not quietly pouring over written texts, I spend talking to myself, verbalizing my ideas in an attempt to wrap my head around the vast amount of information in which I had submerged myself. There was little intellectual strength left at the end of the day for much else. Unkempt and intellectually strained of my own accord, I depended on many people a great deal to keep me afloat. Three and a half years ago I asked my wife, Kotomi, to return with me to Japan so that I could pursue a PhD. This required me leaving a good job in Washington, D.C. and a community of friends and family. She agreed without hesitation and we left for Japan in short order. Immediately after arriving, we discovered we were expecting our first child, my son Kyonosuke. My ability to accomplish the trying and demanding task of writing my PhD dissertation was primarily possible through the love and support of my family. Kyonosuke’s youthful innocence and hunger for loving engagement, maintained within me a northern star of sorts, reminding me of my goal and purpose. Additionally, Kotomi did so much for me, from giving me space and time, to helping me keep myself on a production schedule. Her contribution to this accomplishment deserves my deepest gratitude. Balancing both family and academic life was never easy. I was fortunate, however, and had little trouble. I am indebted, for things beyond just the completion of this dissertation, to my parents, Gloria and Stephen, who consistently supported Kotomi and I through this journey. They both made the long and difficult trip from Austin, Texas viii to Beppu to help with caring for Kyonosuke and making it possible for us to balance our work and daily lives. My mother in particular, came several times, for months at a time. The sacrifices they made, being separated from each other and giving up countless opportunities to do other things in order to help me, is forever marked on my heart. Apart from my home life, Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University became my home away from home. Both the faculty and staff were immensely supportive, and each made every effort to accommodate not only my academic needs, but also provided support beyond the defined parameters of the program. From among the staff at APU, I would like to personally thank Belinda Hall of the Academic Office and Jun Tau of the Research Office, both for their consistent and patient support with all of my questions and for serving as my guides through the various administrative and logistical details central to the completion of my PhD studies and dissertation writing. From among the faculty I would like to specifically give thanks to Professor Robert Salazar and Professor Yoichiro Sato. Both Professor Salazar and Professor Sato patiently and respectfully served informally as my mentors, providing advice on issues ranging from research methodology to publication opportunities. Both consistently made time for my questions despite their busy schedules, and despite their having no responsibility to do so. For that I am deeply appreciative. Beyond the personal support, there was a host of material produced by other scholars and institutions that made this dissertation possible, all of whom are cited with each deserving of acknowledgment and thanks. The Wilson Center’s Digital Archive in particular, however, was by far the most valuable source of primary material for the historical research I used. The ability to access both Chinese and Soviet documents ix related to Chinese foreign relations, all online and with the vast majority having been translated into English, really made this research possible. Similarly, the Computer Assisted Textual Markup and Analysis (CATMA) tool contributed greatly to the execution of this research. This online open-source analysis tool is currently housed at the University of Hamburg in Germany. The hard work of the CATMA team in maintaining and improving this online tool was central to this research’s ability to analyze, with a heightened degree of accuracy, 15 volumes of selected works of Chinese leaders from Mao Zedong to Jiang Zemin. CATMA is a remarkable tool, and I am indebted to the CATMA team for their product. Finally, I would like to close with the highest thanks to two individuals, Professor Susumu Yamagami and Dr. Edgar Porter. For any PhD student, their academic advisor is by far the most important relationship they will develop during their studies. For me, I was lucky enough to have the care and advice of two individuals who were not only knowledgeable about by research, but cared very deeply that I was successful in completing my studies. Dr. Porter served as my primary advisor until his retirement in 2015. Despite his return to the United States, he continued to give my research a level of attention that makes any expression of gratitude here, inadequate. Likewise, Professor Yamagami, upon Dr. Porter’s retirement, quickly took me under his wing, reading every word of every draft I provided and providing guidance and comments that were respectful of the work I had already done, but worthy of the ultimate goal of rigor, accuracy, and clarity. Though the work presented in this dissertation was possible through the kindness and contributions given to me over the past several years, ultimately the ideas and x