The Project Gutenberg EBook of International Law. A Treatise. Volume I (of 2), by Lassa Francis Oppenheim This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: International Law. A Treatise. Volume I (of 2) Peace. Second Edition Author: Lassa Francis Oppenheim Release Date: October 16, 2012 [EBook #41046] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTERNATIONAL LAW, A TREATISE, VOL I *** Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) INTERNATIONAL LAW A TREATISE VOL. I. PEACE SECOND EDITION BY L. OPPENHEIM, M.A., LL.D. WHEWELL PROFESSOR OF INTERNATIONAL LAW IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF JURISPRUDENCE AT MADRID LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA 1912 All rights reserved TO EDWARD ARTHUR WHITTUCK WHOSE SYMPATHY AND ENCOURAGEMENT HAVE ACCOMPANIED THE PROGRESS OF THIS WORK FROM ITS INCEPTION TO ITS CLOSE Transcriber's Note: Original spelling variations have not been standardized. Links have been provided to the second volume of this work, see International Law. A Treatise. Vol. II--War And Neutrality. Second Edition, by Lassa Oppenheim, M.A., LL.D., gutenberg ebooks 41047. Although we verify the correctness of these links at the time of posting, these links may not work, for various reasons, for various people, at various times. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION The course of events since 1905, when this work first made its appearance, and the results of further research have necessitated not only the thorough revision of the former text and the rewriting of some of its parts, but also the discussion of a number of new topics. But while the new matter which has been incorporated has added considerably to the length of the work—the additions to the bibliography, text, and notes amounting to nearly a quarter of the former work—this second edition is not less convenient in size than its predecessor. By rearranging the matter on the page, using a line extra on each, and a greater number of words on a line, by setting the bibliography and notes in smaller type, and by omitting the Appendix, it has been found possible to print the text of this new edition on 626 pages, as compared with 594 pages of the first edition. The system being elastic it was possible to place most of the additional matter within the same sections and under the same headings as before. Some of the points treated are, however, so entirely new that it was necessary to deal with them under separate headings, and within separate sections. The reader will easily distinguish them, since, to avoid disturbing the arrangement of topics, these new sections have been inserted between the old ones, and numbered as the sections preceding them, but with the addition of the letters a, b, &c. The more important of these new sections are the following: § 178a (concerning the Utilisation of the Flow of Rivers); §§ 287a and 287b (concerning Wireless Telegraphy on the Open Sea); §§ 287c and 287d (concerning Mines and Tunnels in the Subsoil of the Sea bed); § 446a (concerning the Casa Blanca incident); §§ 476a and 476b (concerning the International Prize Court and the suggested International Court of Justice); §§ 568a and 568b (concerning the Conventions of the Second Hague Peace Conference, and the Declaration of London); § 576a (concerning Pseudo-Guarantees). Only towards the end of the volume has this mode of dealing with the new topics been departed from. As the chapter treating of Unions, the last of the volume, had to be entirely rearranged and rewritten, and a new chapter on Commercial Treaties inserted, the old arrangement comes to an end with § 577; and §§ 578 to 596 of this new edition present an arrangement of topics which differs from that of the former edition. I venture to hope that this edition will be received as favourably as was its predecessor. My aim, as always, has been to put the matter as clearly as possible before the reader, and nowhere have I forgotten that I am writing as a teacher for students. It is a matter of great satisfaction to me that the prophetic warnings of some otherwise very sympathetic reviewers that a comprehensive treatise on International Law in two volumes would never be read by young students have proved mistaken. The numerous letters which I have received from students, not only in this country but also in America, Japan, France, and Italy, show that I was not wrong when, in the preface to the former edition, I described the work as an elementary book for those beginning to study the subject. Many years of teaching have confirmed me in the conviction that those who approach the study of International Law should at the outset be brought face to face with its complicated problems, and should at once acquire a thorough understanding of the wide scope of the subject. If writers and lecturers who aim at this goal will but make efforts to use the clearest language and an elementary method of explanation, they will attain success in spite of the difficulty of the problems and the wide range of topics to be considered. I owe thanks to many reviewers and readers who have drawn my attention to mistakes and misprints in the first edition, and I am especially indebted to Mr. C. J. B. Hurst, C.B., Assistant Legal Adviser to the Foreign Office, to Mr. E. S. Roscoe, Admiralty Registrar of the High Court, and to Messrs. F. Ritchie and G. E. P. Hertslet of the Foreign Office who gave me valuable information on certain points while I was preparing the manuscript for this edition. And I must likewise most gratefully mention Miss B. M. Rutter and Mr. C. F. Pond who have assisted me in reading the proofs and have prepared the table of cases and the exhaustive alphabetical index. L. OPPENHEIM. Whewell House, Cambridge, November 1, 1911. ABBREVIATIONS OF TITLES OF BOOKS, ETC., QUOTED IN THE TEXT The books referred to in the bibliography and notes are, as a rule, quoted with their full titles and the date of their publication. But certain books and periodicals which are very often referred to throughout this work are quoted in an abbreviated form, as follows:— A.J. = The American Journal of International Law. [Pg vii] [Pg viii] [Pg ix] [Pg x] Annuaire = Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International. Bluntschli = Bluntschli, Das moderne Völkerrecht der civilisirten Staaten als Rechtsbuch dargestellt, 3rd ed. (1878). Bonfils = Bonfils, Manuel De Droit International Public, 5th ed. by Fauchille (1908). Bulmerincq = Bulmerincq, Das Völkerrecht (1887). Calvo = Calvo, Le Droit International etc., 5th ed. 6 vols. (1896). Despagnet = Despagnet, Cours De Droit International Public, 4th ed. by de Boeck (1910). Field = Field, Outlines of an International Code (1872). Fiore = Fiore, Nouveau Droit International Public, deuxième édition, traduite de l'Italien et annotée par Antoine, 3 vols. (1885). Fiore, Code = Fiore, Le Droit International Codifié, nouvelle édition, traduite de l'Italien par Antoine (1911). Gareis = Gareis, Institutionen des Völkerrechts, 2nd ed. (1910). Grotius = Grotius, De Jure Belli ac Pacis (1625). Hall = Hall, A Treatise on International Law, 4th ed. (1895). Halleck = Halleck, International Law, 3rd English ed. by Sir Sherston Baker, 2 vols. (1893). Hartmann = Hartmann, Institutionen des praktischen Völkerrechts in Friedenszeiten (1874). Heffter = Heffter, Das Europäische Völkerrecht der Gegenwart, 8th ed. by Geffcken (1888). Heilborn, System = Heilborn, Das System des Völkerrechts entwickelt aus den völkerrechtlichen Begriffen (1896). Holland, Studies = Holland, Studies in International Law (1898). Holland, Jurisprudence = Holland, The Elements of Jurisprudence, 6th ed. (1893). Holtzendorff = Holtzendorff, Handbuch des Völkerrechts, 4 vols. (1885-1889). Klüber = Klüber, Europäisches Völkerrecht, 2nd ed. by Morstadt (1851). Lawrence = Lawrence, The Principles of International Law, 4th ed. (1910). Lawrence, Essays = Lawrence, Essays on some Disputed Questions of Modern International Law (1884). Liszt = Liszt, Das Völkerrecht, 6th ed. (1910). Lorimer = Lorimer, The Institutes of International Law, 2 vols. (1883-1884). Maine = Maine, International Law, 2nd ed. (1894). Manning = Manning, Commentaries on the Law of Nations, new ed. by Sheldon Amos (1875). Martens = Martens, Völkerrecht, German translation of the Russian original in 2 vols. (1883). Martens, G. F. = G. F. Martens, Précis Du Droit Des Gens Moderne De L'Europe, nouvelle éd. par Vergé, 2 vols. (1858) Martens, R. } Martens, N.R. } Martens, N.S. } Martens, N.R.G. } Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. } Martens. N.R.G. 3rd Ser. } These are the abbreviated quotations of the different parts of Martens, Recueil de Traités (see p. 102 of this volume), which are in common use. Martens, Causes Célèbres = Martens, Causes Célèbres Du Droit Des Gens, 5 vols., 2nd ed. (1858-1861). Mérignhac = Mérignhac, Traité De Droit Public International, vol. i. (1905), vol. ii. (1907). Moore = Moore, A Digest of International Law, 8 vols., Washington (1906). Nys = Nys, Le Droit International, 3 vols. (1904-1906). Perels = Perels, Das internationale öffentliche Seerecht der Gegenwart, 2nd ed. (1903). Phillimore = Phillimore, Commentaries upon International Law, 4 vols. 3rd ed. (1879-1888). Piedelièvre = Piedelièvre, Précis De Droit International Public, 2 vols. (1894-1895). Pradier-Fodéré = Pradier-Fodéré, Traité De Droit International Public, 8 vols. (1885-1906). Pufendorf = Pufendorf, De Jure Naturae et Gentium (1672). Rivier = Rivier, Principes Du Droit Des Gens, 2 vols. (1896). R.I. = Revue De Droit International Et De Législation Comparée. R.G. = Revue Général De Droit International Public. Taylor = Taylor, A Treatise on International Public Law (1901). Testa = Testa, Le Droit Public International Maritime, traduction du Portugais par Boutiron (1886). Twiss = Twiss, The Law of Nations, 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1884, 1875). Ullmann = Ullmann, Völkerrecht, 2nd ed. (1908). Vattel = Vattel, Le Droit Des Gens, 4 books in 2 vols., nouvelle éd. (Neuchâtel, 1773). Walker = Walker, A Manual of Public International Law (1895). Walker, History = Walker, A History of the Law of Nations, vol. i. (1899). Walker, Science = Walker, The Science of International Law (1893). Westlake = Westlake, International Law, 2 vols. (1904-1907). Westlake, Chapters = Westlake, Chapters on the Principles of International Law (1894). Wharton = Wharton, A Digest of the International Law of the United States, 3 vols. (1886). Wheaton = Wheaton, Elements of International Law, 8th American ed. by Dana (1866). Z.V. = Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht und Bundesstaatsrecht. [Pg xi] [Pg xii] [Pg xiii] CASES CITED Aegi, § 437, p. 496 Ambrose Light, the, § 273 note 2; § 276, p. 345 note 1 Amelia Island, § 132, p. 186 Anderson, John, § 147, p. 205 note 1 Anna, the, § 234, p. 301 Aubespine, L', § 387, p. 459 Bartram v. Robertson, § 580, p. 611 note 1 Bass, de, § 387, p. 459 Beckert, Wilhelm, § 402, p. 474 Belgenland, the, § 265, p. 335 note 3 Belle-Isle, Maréchal de, § 398, p. 471 Boisset, M., § 163, p. 220 Botiller v. Dominguez, § 546, p. 578 note 2 Brooke, Sir James, § 209, p. 282 note 2 Brunswick, Duke of, v. King of Hanover, § 353, p. 433 Canning, George, and the Russian Ambassador, § 481, p. 532 Canning, Sir Stratford, § 375, p. 451 Caroline, the, § 133, p. 187; § 444, p. 501; § 446, p. 501 Casa Blanca, § 446a, p. 502; § 476, p. 521 Castioni, Ex parte, § 334, p. 415 note 4 Cellamare, Prince, § 388, p. 459 Cespedes, the, § 273, p. 343, note 1 Charkieh, the, § 91, p. 144 note 1; § 450, p. 507 note 1 Charlton, Porter, § 330, p. 408 Chartered Mercantile Bank of India v. Netherlands India Steam Navigation Co., § 265, p. 335 note 2 Cherokee Tobacco, the, § 546, p. 578 note 2 Constitution, the, § 450, p. 507 note 1 Cook v. Sprigg, § 82, p. 129 note 4 Costa Rica Packet, the, § 162, p. 217 Cutting, § 147, p. 205 Danish Fleet, the, § 131, p. 186 De Jager v. The Attorney-General for Natal, § 317, p. 394 De Haber v. Queen of Portugal, § 115, p. 169 note 2 Delagoa Bay, § 247, p. 313 Dogger Bank, § 163, p. 219 note 2 Dubois, § 392, p. 465 Exchange, the, § 450, p. 507 note 1 Fonds pieux des Californias, § 476, p. 521 Franconia, the, § 25, p. 29 Gallatin, § 403, p. 474 note 1 Germany, Great Britain, and Italy v. Venezuela, § 476, p. 521 Germany, France, and Great Britain v. Japan, § 476, p. 521 Gore and Pinkney, § 458, p. 513 Guébriant, Madame de, § 370, p. 447 Gurney, § 402, p. 473 note 2 Gyllenburg, § 388, p. 459 Haggerty, § 427, p. 489 Hall v. Campbell, § 240, p. 306 note 1 Hellfeld v. Russian Government, § 115, p. 169 note 4 Huascar, the, § 273, p. 342 Huus v. New York and Porto Rico Steamship Co., § 579, p. 609 note 1 Indian Chief, the, § 434, p. 494 note 1 Ionian Ships, § 93, p. 146 note 1 Isabella, Queen of Spain, § 351, p. 432 Jacquin, § 335, p. 416 Jager. See De Jager Jassy, the, § 450, p. 507 note 1 Johann Friederich, the, § 265, p. 335 note 2; § 271, p. 339 note 1 Kalkstein, § 390, p. 464 Keiley, § 375, p. 450 Koszta, Martin, § 313, p. 388 note 1 Lebanon, the. See Vaderland L'Aubespine. See Aubespine McLeod, § 133, p. 187 note 2; § 446, p. 501 Macartney v. Garbutt, § 375, p. 450 note 2; § 394, p. 467 note 1 Magdalena Steam Navigation Co. v. Martin, § 391, p. 465 note 2 Maori King, the, § 261, p. 331 note 1 Mendoza, § 387, p. 459 Meunier, In re, § 334, p. 415 note 4; § 338, p. 418 note 3 Monaldeschi, § 348, p. 431 note 1 Montagnini, § 106, p. 160 note 1; § 386, p. 458 note 1; § 411, p. 478 note 2 Montezuma, the, § 273, p. 343 note 1 Monti, Marquis de, § 400, p. 472 Moray Firth, § 191, p. 263 note 3. See also Mortensen v. Peters Mortensen v. Peters, § 22, p. 28 note 1; § 192, p. 264 note 2 Muscat Dhows, the, § 295, p. 372 note 2; § 476, p. 521 Musgrove v. Chun Teeong Toy, § 141, p. 200 note 1 Nereide, the, § 21, p. 26 note 2 Nikitschenkow, § 390, p. 463 Nillins, § 330, p. 407 North Atlantic Coast Fisheries, § 191, p. 262 note 1; § 205, p. 276 note 2; § 458, p. 513 note 1; § 476, p. 522 Norway v. Sweden, § 476, p. 522 Orinoco Steamship Co., § 476, p. 522 Paladini, § 330, p. 408 Panther, the, § 163, p. 219 Paquette Habana, the, § 21, p. 26 note 2 Parkinson v. Potter, § 394, p. 467 note 1 Parlement Belge, the, § 450, p. 507 note Platen-Hallermund, § 240, p. 306 Porteña, the, § 273, p. 343 note 1 Pouble, Cirilo, § 147, p. 205 note 1 Prioleau v. United States, § 82, p. 129 note 1; § 115, p. 169 note 3 Reg. v. Cunningham, § 194, p. 266 note 2 Republic of Bolivia v. The Indemnity Mutual Marine Assurance Co., § 272, p. 341 note 1 Republic of Mexico v. Francisco de Arrangoiz, § 115, p. 169 note 1 Ripperda, Duke of, § 390, p. 461 Ross, Bishop, § 362, p. 443 note 1 Sà, Don Pantaleon, § 404, p. 475 Sackville, Lord, § 383, p. 455 note 1 Santa Lucia, § 247, p. 313 Sapphire, the, § 115, p. 169 note 1 Savarkar, § 332, p. 410; § 476, p. 522 Schnaebélé, § 456, p. 511 Scotia, the, § 21, p. 26 note 2 Shenandoah, the, § 273, p. 343 Soulé, § 398, p. 470 Springer, § 390, p. 461 Strathclyde, the. See Franconia, the Sully, § 396, p. 468 Sun Yat Sen, § 390, p. 464 Taylor v. Best, § 391, p. 465 note 2 Tourville, § 330, p. 407 [Pg xiv] United States v. Repentigny, § 240, p. 306 note 1 United States v. Prioleau, § 82, p. 129 note 1; § 115, p. 169 note 3 United States v. Smith, § 21, p. 26 note 2 United States v. Venezuela, § 476, p. 522 United States v. Wagner, § 115, p. 169 note 1 Vaderland, the, § 287b, p. 357 Vavasseur v. Krupp, § 115, p. 169 note 2 Vexaincourt, § 163, p. 219 Virginius, the, § 133, p. 187 note 2 Waddington, Carlo, § 404, p. 475 Washburne, § 399, p. 471 West Rand Central Mining Co. v. The King, § 21, p. 26 note 2; § 82, p. 129 note 4 William, King of Holland, § 350, p. 432 Whitney v. Robertson, § 546, p. 578 note 2; § 580, p. 611 note 1 Wrech, Baron de, § 391, p. 465 CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I FOUNDATION OF THE LAW OF NATIONS I. The Law of Nations as Law SECT. PAGE 1. Conception of the Law of Nations 3 2. Legal Force of the Law of Nations contested 4 3. Characteristics of Rules of Law 6 4. Law-giving authority not essential for the existence of Law 6 5. Definition and Three Essential Conditions of Law 8 6. Law not to be identified with Municipal Law 9 7. The "Family of Nations" a Community 9 8. The "Family of Nations" a Community with Rules of Conduct 11 9. External Power for the enforcement of Rules of International Conduct 13 10. Practice recognises Law of Nations as Law 14 II. Basis of the Law of Nations 11. Common Consent the Basis of Law 15 12. Common Consent of the Family of Nations the Basis of International Law 16 13. States the Subjects of the Law of Nations 19 14. Equality an Inference from the Basis of International Law 20 III. Sources of the Law of Nations 15. Source in Contradistinction to Cause 20 16. The Two Sources of International Law 21 17. Custom in Contradistinction to Usage 22 18. Treaties as Source of International Law 23 19. Factors influencing the Growth of International Law 24 IV. Relations between International and Municipal Law 20. Essential Difference between International and Municipal Law 25 21. Law of Nations never per se Municipal Law 26 22. Certain Rules of Municipal Law necessitated or interdicted 27 23. Presumption against conflicts between International and Municipal Law 28 24. Presumption of Existence of certain necessary Municipal Rules 28 25. Presumption of the Existence of certain Municipal Rules in Conformity with Rights granted by the Law of Nations 28 [Pg xv] [Pg xvi] V. Dominion of the Law of Nations 26. Range of Dominion of International Law controversial 30 27. Three Conditions of Membership of the Family of Nations 31 28. Present Range of Dominion of the Law of Nations 32 29. Treatment of States outside the Family of Nations 34 VI. Codification of the Law of Nations 30. Movement in Favour of Codification 35 31. Work of the First Hague Peace Conference 37 32. Work of the Second Hague Peace Conference and the Naval Conference of London 38 33. Value of Codification of International Law contested 40 34. Merits of Codification in general 40 35. Merits of Codification of International Law 42 36. How Codification could be realised 44 CHAPTER II DEVELOPMENT AND SCIENCE OF THE LAW OF NATIONS I. Development of the Law of Nations before Grotius 37. No Law of Nations in Antiquity 45 38. The Jews 46 39. The Greeks 49 40. The Romans 50 41. No need for a Law of Nations during the Middle Ages 53 42. The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries 54 II. Development of the Law of Nations after Grotius 43. The time of Grotius 59 44. The period 1648-1721 61 45. The period 1721-1789 64 46. The period 1789-1815 64 47. The period 1815-1856 66 48. The period 1856-1874 69 49. The period 1874-1899 71 50. The Twentieth Century 74 51. Six Lessons of the History of the Law of Nations 80 III. The Science of the Law of Nations 52. Forerunners of Grotius 83 53. Grotius 85 54. Zouche 88 55. The Naturalists 89 56. The Positivists 90 57. The Grotians 92 58. Treatises of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 94 59. The Science of the Law of Nations in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, as represented by Treatises 98 60. Collection of Treatises 102 61. Bibliographies 103 62. Periodicals 103 PART I THE SUBJECTS OF THE LAW OF NATIONS CHAPTER I INTERNATIONAL PERSONS I. Sovereign States as International Persons 63. Real and apparent International Persons 107 64. Conception of the State 108 65. Not-full Sovereign States 109 66. Divisibility of Sovereignty contested 110 67. Meaning of Sovereignty in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 111 [Pg xvii] 68. Meaning of Sovereignty in the Eighteenth Century 112 69. Meaning of Sovereignty in the Nineteenth Century 113 70. Result of the Controversy regarding Sovereignty 115 II. Recognition of States as International Persons 71. Recognition a condition of Membership of the Family of Nations 116 72. Mode of Recognition 117 73. Recognition under Conditions 118 74. Recognition Timely and Precipitate 119 75. State Recognition in contradistinction to other Recognitions 120 III. Changes in the Condition of International Persons 76. Important in contradistinction to Indifferent Changes 121 77. Changes not affecting States as International Persons 122 78. Changes affecting States as International Persons 123 79. Extinction of International Persons 124 IV. Succession of International Persons 80. Common Doctrine regarding Succession of International Persons 125 81. How far Succession actually takes place 127 82. Succession in consequence of Absorption 127 83. Succession in consequence of Dismemberment 130 84. Succession in case of Separation or Cession 131 V. Composite International Persons 85. Real and apparent Composite International Persons 132 86. States in Personal Union 133 87. States in Real Union 134 88. Confederated States (Staatenbund) 135 89. Federal States (Bundesstaaten) 136 VI. Vassal States 90. The Union between Suzerain and Vassal State 140 91. International position of Vassal States 141 VII. States under Protectorate 92. Conception of Protectorate 144 93. International position of States under Protectorate 145 94. Protectorates outside the Family of Nations 146 VIII. Neutralised States 95. Conception of Neutralised States 147 96. Act and Condition of Neutralisation 148 97. International position of Neutralised States 149 98. Switzerland 151 99. Belgium 152 100. Luxemburg 152 101. The former Congo Free State 153 IX. Non-Christian States 102. No essential difference between Christian and other States 154 103. International position of non-Christian States except Turkey and Japan 155 X. The Holy See 104. The former Papal States 157 105. The Italian Law of Guaranty 158 106. International position of the Holy See and the Pope 159 107. Violation of the Holy See and the Pope 161 XI. International Persons of the Present Day 108. European States 162 109. American States 163 [Pg xviii] 110. African States 164 111. Asiatic States 164 CHAPTER II POSITION OF THE STATES WITHIN THE FAMILY OF NATIONS I. International Personality 112. The so-called Fundamental Rights 165 113. International Personality a Body of Qualities 166 114. Other Characteristics of the position of the States within the Family of Nations 167 II. Equality, Rank, and Titles 115. Legal Equality of States 168 116. Political Hegemony of Great Powers 170 117. Rank of States 171 118. The Alternat 173 119. Titles of States 173 III. Dignity 120. Dignity a Quality 174 121. Consequences of the Dignity of States 175 122. Maritime Ceremonials 176 IV. Independence and Territorial and Personal Supremacy 123. Independence and Territorial as well as Personal Supremacy as Aspects of Sovereignty 177 124. Consequences of Independence and Territorial and Personal Supremacy 178 125. Violations of Independence and Territorial and Personal Supremacy 179 126. Restrictions upon Independence 180 127. Restrictions upon Territorial Supremacy 182 128. Restrictions upon Personal Supremacy 183 V. Self-preservation 129. Self-preservation an excuse for violations 184 130. What acts of self-preservation are excused 185 131. Case of the Danish Fleet (1807) 186 132. Case of Amelia Island 186 133. Case of the Caroline 187 VI. Intervention 134. Conception and Character of Intervention 188 135. Intervention by Right 189 136. Admissibility of Intervention in default of Right 193 137. Intervention in the interest of Humanity 194 138. Intervention de facto a Matter of Policy 195 139. The Monroe Doctrine 196 140. Merits of the Monroe Doctrine 198 VII. Intercourse 141. Intercourse a presupposition of International Personality 199 142. Consequences of Intercourse as a presupposition of International Personality 200 VIII. Jurisdiction 143. Jurisdiction important for the position of the States within the Family of Nations 201 144. Restrictions upon Territorial Jurisdiction. 202 145. Jurisdiction over Citizens abroad 202 146. Jurisdiction on the Open Sea 203 147. Criminal Jurisdiction over Foreigners in Foreign States 203 CHAPTER III RESPONSIBILITY OF STATES I. On State Responsibility in General [Pg xix] [Pg xx] 148. Nature of State Responsibility 206 149. Original and Vicarious State Responsibility 207 150. Essential Difference between Original and Vicarious Responsibility 208 II. State Responsibility for International Delinquencies 151. Conception of International Delinquencies 209 152. Subjects of International Delinquencies 210 153. State Organs able to commit International Delinquencies 211 154. No International Delinquency without Malice or culpable Negligence 212 155. Objects of International Delinquencies 212 156. Legal consequences of International Delinquencies 213 III. State Responsibility for Acts of State Organs 157. Responsibility varies with Organs concerned 214 158. Internationally injurious Acts of Heads of States 214 159. Internationally injurious Acts of Members of Governments 215 160. Internationally injurious Acts of Diplomatic Envoys 215 161. Internationally injurious Attitudes of Parliaments 216 162. Internationally injurious Acts of Judicial Functionaries 216 163. Internationally injurious Acts of administrative Officials and Military and Naval Forces 218 IV. State Responsibility for Acts of Private Persons 164. Vicarious in contradistinction to Original State Responsibility for Acts of Private Persons 221 165. Vicarious responsibility for Acts of Private Persons relative only 222 166. Municipal Law for Offences against Foreign States 222 167. Responsibility for Acts of Insurgents and Rioters 222 PART II THE OBJECTS OF THE LAW OF NATIONS CHAPTER I STATE TERRITORY I. On State Territory in General 168. Conception of State Territory 229 169. Different kinds of Territory 230 170. Importance of State Territory 231 171. One Territory, one State 231 II. The different Parts of State Territory 172. Real and Fictional Parts of Territory 235 173. Territorial Subsoil 235 174. Territorial Atmosphere 236 175. Inalienability of Parts of Territory 238 III. Rivers 176. Rivers State Property of Riparian States 239 177. Navigation on National, Boundary, and not-National Rivers 240 178. Navigation on International Rivers 241 178a. Utilisation of the Flow of Rivers 243 IV. Lakes and Land-locked Seas 179. Lakes and Land-locked Seas State Property of Riparian States 245 180. So-called International Lakes and Land-locked Seas 246 181. The Black Sea 247 V. Canals 182. Canals State Property of Riparian States 248 183. The Suez Canal 249 184. The Panama Canal 251 VI. Maritime Belt [Pg xxi] 185. State Property of Maritime Belt contested 255 186. Breadth of Maritime Belt 256 187. Fisheries, Cabotage, Police, and Maritime Ceremonials within the Belt 257 188. Navigation within the Belt 258 189. Jurisdiction within the Belt 260 190. Zone for Revenue and Sanitary Laws 261 VII. Gulfs and Bays 191. Territorial Gulfs and Bays 262 192. Non-territorial Gulfs and Bays 263 193. Navigation and Fishery in Territorial Gulfs and Bays 265 VIII. Straits 194. What Straits are Territorial 265 195. Navigation, Fishery, and Jurisdiction in Straits 266 196. The former Sound Dues 267 197. The Bosphorus and Dardanelles 268 IX. Boundaries of State Territory 198. Natural and Artificial Boundaries 270 199. Boundary Waters 270 200. Boundary Mountains 272 201. Boundary Disputes 272 202. Natural Boundaries sensu politico 273 X. State Servitudes 203. Conception of State Servitudes 273 204. Subjects of State Servitudes 276 205. Object of State Servitudes 276 206. Different kinds of State Servitudes 278 207. Validity of State Servitudes 279 208. Extinction of State Servitudes 280 XI. Modes of acquiring State Territory 209. Who can acquire State Territory? 281 210. Former Doctrine concerning Acquisition of Territory 282 211. What Modes of Acquisition of Territory there are 283 212. Original and derivative Modes of Acquisition 284 XII. Cession 213. Conception of Cession of State Territory 285 214. Subjects of Cession 285 215. Object of Cession 286 216. Form of Cession 286 217. Tradition of the ceded Territory 288 218. Veto of third Powers 289 219. Plebiscite and Option 289 XIII. Occupation 220. Conception of Occupation 291 221. Object of Occupation 292 222. Occupation how effected 292 223. Inchoate Title of Discovery 294 224. Notification of Occupation to other Powers 294 225. Extent of Occupation 295 226. Protectorate as Precursor of Occupation 296 227. Spheres of influence 297 228. Consequences of Occupation 298 XIV. Accretion 229. Conception of Accretion 299 230. Different kinds of Accretion 299 [Pg xxii] [Pg xxiii] 231. Artificial formations 299 232. Alluvions 300 233. Deltas 300 234. New-born Islands 301 235. Abandoned River-beds 302 XV. Subjugation 236. Conception of Conquest and of Subjugation 302 237. Subjugation in Contradistinction to Occupation 303 238. Justification of Subjugation as a Mode of Acquisition 304 239. Subjugation of the whole or of a part of Enemy Territory 304 240. Consequences of Subjugation 305 241. Veto of third Powers 307 XVI. Prescription 242. Conception of Prescription 308 243. Prescription how effected 309 XVII. Loss of State Territory 244. Six modes of losing State Territory 311 245. Operation of Nature 312 246. Revolt 312 247. Dereliction 313 CHAPTER II THE OPEN SEA I. Rise of the Freedom of the Open Sea 248. Former Claims to Control over the Sea 315 249. Practical Expression of claims to Maritime Sovereignty 317 250. Grotius's Attack on Maritime Sovereignty 318 251. Gradual recognition of the Freedom of the Open Sea 319 II. Conception of the Open Sea 252. Discrimination between Open Sea and Territorial Waters 321 253. Clear Instances of Parts of the Open Sea 322 III. The Freedom of the Open Sea 254. Meaning of the Term "Freedom of the Open Sea" 323 255. Legal Provisions for the Open Sea 324 256. Freedom of the Open Sea and War 325 257. Navigation and ceremonials on the Open Sea 326 258. Claim of States to Maritime Flag 326 259. Rationale for the Freedom of the Open Sea 327 IV. Jurisdiction on the Open Sea 260. Jurisdiction on the Open Sea mainly connected with Flag 329 261. Claim of Vessels to sail under a certain Flag 329 262. Ship Papers 331 263. Names of Vessels 332 264. Territorial Quality of Vessels on the Open Sea 332 265. Safety of Traffic on the Open Sea 333 266. Powers of Men-of-war over Merchantmen of all Nations 335 267. How Verification of Flag is effected 337 268. How Visit is effected 337 269. How Search is effected 338 270. How Arrest is effected 338 271. Shipwreck and Distress on the Open Sea 339 V. Piracy 272. Conception of Piracy 340 273. Private Ships as Subjects of Piracy 341 [Pg xxiv] 274. Mutinous Crew and Passengers as Subjects of Piracy 343 275. Object of Piracy 344 276. Piracy, how effected 344 277. Where Piracy can be committed 345 278. Jurisdiction over Pirates and their Punishment 345 279. Pirata non mutat dominium 346 280. Piracy according to Municipal Law 347 VI. Fisheries in the Open Sea 281. Fisheries in the Open Sea free to all Nations 348 282. Fisheries in the North Sea 349 283. Bumboats in the North Sea 351 284. Seal Fisheries in Behring Sea 351 285. Fisheries around the Faröe Islands and Iceland 353 VII. Telegraph Cables in the Open Sea 286. Telegraph Cables in the Open Sea admitted 353 287. International Protection of Submarine Telegraph Cables 354 VIII. Wireless Telegraphy on the Open Sea 287a. Radiotelegraphy between Ships and the Shore 355 287b. Radiotelegraphy between Ships at Sea 356 IX. The Subsoil beneath the Sea Bed 287c. Five Rules concerning the Subsoil beneath the Sea Bed 357 287d. The Proposed Channel Tunnel 359 CHAPTER III INDIVIDUALS I. Position of Individuals in International Law 288. Importance of Individuals to the Law of Nations 362 289. Individuals never Subjects of the Law of Nations 362 290. Individuals Objects of the Law of Nations 365 291. Nationality the Link between Individuals and the Law of Nations 366 292. The Law of Nations and the Rights of Mankind 367 II. Nationality 293. Conception of Nationality 369 294. Function of Nationality 370 295. So-called Protégés and de facto Subjects 371 296. Nationality and Emigration 373 III. Modes of Acquiring and Losing Nationality 297. Five Modes of Acquisition of Nationality 374 298. Acquisition of Nationality by Birth 375 299. Acquisition of Nationality through Naturalisation 375 300. Acquisition of Nationality through Redintegration 376 301. Acquisition of Nationality through Subjugation and Cession 377 302. Seven Modes of losing Nationality 377 IV. Naturalisation in Especial 303. Conception and Importance of Naturalisation 379 304. Object of Naturalisation 380 305. Conditions of Naturalisation 380 306. Effect of Naturalisation upon previous Citizenship 381 307. Naturalisation in Great Britain 382 V. Double and Absent Nationality 308. Possibility of Double and Absent Nationality 383 309. How Double Nationality occurs 384 310. Position of Individuals with Double Nationality 385 [Pg xxv] 311. How Absent Nationality occurs 387 312. Position of Individuals destitute of Nationality 387 313. Redress against Difficulties arising from Double and Absent Nationality 388 VI. Reception of Aliens and Right of Asylum 314. No Obligation to admit Aliens 390 315. Reception of Aliens under conditions 392 316. So-called Right of Asylum 392 VII. Position of Aliens after Reception 317. Aliens subjected to Territorial Supremacy 393 318. Aliens in Eastern Countries 395 319. Aliens under the Protection of their Home State 395 320. Protection to be afforded to Aliens' Persons and Property 397 321. How far Aliens can be treated according to Discretion 397 322. Departure from the Foreign Country 398 VIII. Expulsion of Aliens 323. Competence to expel Aliens 399 324. Just Causes of Expulsion of Aliens 400 325. Expulsion how effected 402 326. Reconduction in Contradistinction to Expulsion 402 IX. Extradition 327. Extradition no legal duty 403 328. Extradition Treaties how arisen 404 329. Municipal Extradition Laws 405 330. Object of Extradition 407 331. Extraditable Crimes 408 332. Effectuation and Condition of Extradition 409 X. Principle of Non-Extradition of Political Criminals 333. How Non-extradition of Political Criminals became the Rule 411 334. Difficulty concerning the Conception of Political Crime 414 335. The so-called Belgian Attentat Clause 416 336. The Russian Project of 1881 416 337. The Swiss Solution of the Problem in 1892 417 338. Rationale for the Principle of Non-extradition of Political Criminals 418 339. How to avoid Misapplication of the Principle of Non-extradition of Political Criminals 420 340. Reactionary Extradition Treaties 422 PART III ORGANS OF THE STATES FOR THEIR INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS CHAPTER I HEADS OF STATES AND FOREIGN OFFICES I. Position of Heads of States according to International Law 341. Necessity of a Head for every State 425 342. Recognition of Heads of States 425 343. Competence of Heads of States 426 344. Heads of States Objects of the Law of Nations 427 345. Honours and Privileges of Heads of States 428 II. Monarchs 346. Sovereignty of Monarchs 428 347. Consideration due to Monarchs at home 429 348. Consideration due to Monarchs abroad 429 349. The Retinue of Monarchs abroad 431 350. Monarchs travelling incognito 431 351. Deposed and Abdicated Monarchs 432 352. Regents 432 [Pg xxvi] [Pg xxvii] 353. Monarchs in the service or subjects of Foreign Powers 432 III. Presidents of Republics 354. Presidents not Sovereigns 433 355. Position of Presidents in general 434 356. Position of Presidents abroad 434 IV. Foreign Offices 357. Position of the Secretary for Foreign Affairs 435 CHAPTER II DIPLOMATIC ENVOYS I. The Institution of Legation 358. Development of Legations 437 359. Diplomacy 438 II. Right of Legation 360. Conception of Right of Legation 440 361. What States possess the Right of Legation 441 362. Right of Legation by whom exercised 442 III. Kinds and Classes of Diplomatic Envoys 363. Envoys Ceremonial and Political 443 364. Classes of Diplomatic Envoys 443 365. Ambassadors 444 366. Ministers Plenipotentiary and Envoys Extraordinary 445 367. Ministers Resident 445 368. Chargés d'Affaires 445 369. The Diplomatic Corps 446 IV. Appointment of Diplomatic Envoys 370. Person and Qualification of the Envoy 446 371. Letter of Credence, Full Powers, Passports 447 372. Combined Legations 448 373. Appointment of several Envoys 448 V. Reception of Diplomatic Envoys 374. Duty to receive Diplomatic Envoys 449 375. Refusal to receive a certain Individual 450 376. Mode and Solemnity of Reception 451 377. Reception of Envoys to Congresses and Conferences 452 VI. Functions of Diplomatic Envoys 378. On Diplomatic Functions in general 453 379. Negotiation 453 380. Observation 454 381. Protection 454 382. Miscellaneous Functions 454 383. Envoys not to interfere in Internal Politics 455 VII. Position of Diplomatic Envoys 384. Diplomatic Envoys objects of International Law 455 385. Privileges due to Diplomatic Envoys 456 VIII. Inviolability of Diplomatic Envoys 386. Protection due to Diplomatic Envoys 457 387. Exemption from Criminal Jurisdiction 458 388. Limitation of Inviolability 459 IX. Exterritoriality of Diplomatic Envoys 389. Reason and Fictional Character of Exterritoriality 460 390. Immunity of Domicile 461 [Pg xxviii]