InternationalLawandtheArctic ClimatechangeandrisingoilpriceshavethrusttheArctictothe topoftheforeignpolicyagendaandraiseddifficultissuesof sovereignty,security,andenvironmentalprotection.Improved accessforshippingandresourcedevelopmentareleadingtonew internationalrulesonsafety,pollutionprevention,and emergencyresponse.AroundtheArctic,maritimeboundary disputesarebeingnegotiatedandresolved,andnew internationalinstitutions,suchastheArcticCouncil,are mediatingdeep-rootedtensionsbetweenRussiaandNATOand betweennationstatesandindigenouspeoples.InternationalLaw andtheArcticexplainsthesedevelopmentsandrevealsastrong trendtowardinternationalcooperationandlaw-making.Itthus contradictsthewidespreadmisconceptionthattheArcticisan unregulatedzoneofpotentialconflict. MichaelByersholdstheCanadaResearchChairinGlobal PoliticsandInternationalLawattheUniversityofBritish Columbia. Cambrdige University Press Not for sale or distribution. cambridge studies in international and comparative law Establishedin1946,thisseriesproduceshigh-qualityscholarshipinthefieldsof publicandprivateinternationallawandcomparativelaw.Althoughtheseare distinctlegalsub-disciplines,developmentssince1946confirmtheir interrelations. Comparativelawisincreasinglyusedasatoolinthemakingoflawat national,regional,andinternationallevels.Privateinternationallawisnow oftenaffectedbyinternationalconventions,andtheissuesfacedbyclassical conflictsrulesarefrequentlydealtwithbysubstantiveharmonizationoflaw underinternationalauspices.Mixedinternationalarbitrations,especiallythose involvingstateeconomicactivity,raisemixedquestionsofpublicandprivate internationallaw,whileinmanyfields(suchastheprotectionofhumanrights anddemocraticstandards,investmentguaranteesandinternationalcriminal law)internationalandnationalsystemsinteract.Nationalconstitutional arrangementsrelatingto“foreignaffairs,”andtotheimplementationof internationalnorms,areafocusofattention. TheSerieswelcomesworksofatheoreticalorinterdisciplinarycharacter,and thosefocusingonthenewapproachestointernationalorcomparativelawor conflictsoflaw.Studiesofparticularinstitutionsorproblemsareequally welcome,asaretranslationsofthebestworkpublishedinotherlanguages. GeneralEditors JamesCrawfordSCFBAWhewellProfessorofInternationalLaw, FacultyofLaw,UniversityofCambridge JohnS.BellFBAProfessorofLaw,FacultyofLaw,Universityof Cambridge Alistofbooksintheseriescanbefoundattheendofthisvolume. Cambrdige University Press Not for sale or distribution. International Law and the Arctic Michael Byers WithJamesBaker Cambrdige University Press Not for sale or distribution. UniversityPrintingHouse,CambridgeCB28BS,UnitedKingdom PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyCambridgeUniversityPress,NewYork CambridgeUniversityPressispartoftheUniversityofCambridge. ItfurtherstheUniversity’smissionbydisseminatingknowledgeinthepursuitof education,learning,andresearchatthehighestinternationallevelsofexcellence. www.cambridge.org Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9781107042759 !MichaelByers2013 Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements, noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress. Firstpublished2013 PrintedintheUnitedKingdombyCPIGroupLtd,CroydonCR04YY AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloguinginPublicationdata Byers,Michael,1966– Internationallawandthearctic/MichaelByers. pages cm.– (Cambridgestudiesininternationalandcomparativelaw;103) Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN978-1-107-04275-9(hardback) 1. Arcticregions–Internationalstatus. 2. Arcticregions–International cooperation. I. Title. KZ4110.P65B94 2013 341.45091632–dc23 0 2013023187 ISBN978-1-107-04275-9Hardback CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceoraccuracyof URLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredtointhispublication, anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain, accurateorappropriate. Cambrdige University Press Not for sale or distribution. ItisoftensaidtherearefewtrulyuntamedplacesleftonEarth,butthewindswepthorizons oftheArcticsurelyqualify.Somepoliticalanalystsmaintainthatthegeopoliticallandscape isequallyharsh–alawlessregionpoisedforconflictduetoanaccelerating“raceforthe NorthPole.” Wedisagree.Instead,wefirmlybelievethattheArcticcanbeusedtodemonstratejust howmuchpeaceandcollectiveinterestscanbeservedthroughtheimplementationofthe international rule of law. Moreover, we believe that the challenges in the Arctic should inspire momentum in international relations, based on co-operation rather than rivalry andconfrontation,andwebelievethatimportantstepshavealreadybeentakentoward thisgoal. RussianForeignMinisterSergeiLavrovandNorwegianForeignMinister JonasGahrStøre,“Canada,TakeNote:Here’sHowtoResolve MaritimeDisputes,”GlobeandMail,September21,2010 Cambrdige University Press Not for sale or distribution. Contents Acknowledgements pagexiv Noteonmapsandmeasurements xvi Listofabbreviations xvii Introduction 1 1 Territory 10 1 HansIsland 10 2 Svalbard 16 3 Greenland 22 4 SverdrupIslands 24 5 Summary 26 2 Maritimeboundaries 28 1 1973Canada–DenmarkBoundaryTreaty 29 2 1990BeringSeaTreaty 32 3 MaritimeboundariesaroundJanMayen 36 4 2006Greenland–SvalbardBoundaryTreaty 38 5 2010BarentsSeaBoundaryTreaty 39 6 LincolnSeaboundary 46 7 Summary 55 3 BeaufortSeaboundary 56 1 Background 57 2 Resolutionefforts 62 3 Canada’slegalposition 63 4 UnitedStates’legalposition 67 5 Lawofmaritimeboundarydelimitationwithin 200nauticalmiles 68 ix Cambrdige University Press Not for sale or distribution. x contents 6 Lawofmaritimeboundarydelimitationbeyond 200nauticalmiles 71 7 Potentialnegotiatingpositions 74 7.1 Unilateralrecognitionoftheotherstate’sposition 74 7.2 Coastallength 75 7.3 Relevanceofislands 78 7.4 Concavityofthecoastline 78 7.5 Canada’spositionbeyondtheEEZ 79 7.6 InuvialuitFinalAgreement:acomplicatingfactor 80 7.7 UnitedStates’positionbeyondtheEEZ 82 8 OptionsforUnitedStates–Canadacooperation 83 8.1 Canadamakesapreliminaryorpartialsubmission totheCommissionontheLimitsofthe ContinentalShelf 84 8.2 UnitedStatessendsa“noobjectionstatement”to theCommissionontheLimitsoftheContinental Shelf 85 8.3 CanadaandUnitedStatesmaximizecombinedEEZ rightswitha“specialarea” 85 8.4 Multifunctionaldelimitation 86 8.5 Provisionofeconomicaccessrights 87 8.6 Jointdevelopmentarrangement 88 9 Russia–Canadamaritimeboundaryinthe BeaufortSea? 90 10 Summary 90 4 Extendedcontinentalshelves 92 1 Continentalshelfregime 93 2 Seafloorhighs 96 2.1 Oceanicridges 97 2.2 Submarineridgesandsubmarineelevations 99 3 Geomorphologicalandgeologicalcharacteristics ofthecentralArcticOcean 104 3.1 LomonosovRidge 105 3.2 Alpha/MendeleevRidge 106 3.3 Submissions,responses,anddiplomacy 107 4 OptionsforsubmissionstotheCommissionon theLimitsoftheContinentalShelf 109 4.1 Fullsubmissionwithoutcoordinationwithother states 110 4.2 Excludeanydisputedorpotentiallydisputedarea fromthesubmission 111 Cambrdige University Press Not for sale or distribution. contents xi 4.3 AgreenottoobjecttotheCommissionontheLimits oftheContinentalShelfconsideringdata 111 4.4 Coordinatedsubmissions 112 4.5 Jointsubmission 112 5 Negotiatingtemporarylinesorpermanent boundariesbeforesubmitting 114 5.1 Negotiatetemporarylinesinadvanceof CommissionontheLimitsoftheContinentalShelf submissions 114 5.2 Negotiatepermanentboundariesinadvanceof CommissionontheLimitsoftheContinentalShelf submissions 115 6 Optionsformaritimeboundarydelimitation 117 6.1 Delimitationofseafloorhighs 118 6.2 Delimitingridgeswithsectorordistanceformulae 119 6.3 Canada–DenmarkboundaryalongtheLomonosov Ridge 120 6.4 Third-partydisputeresolution 122 7 Non-ArcticstatesandArcticcontinentalshelves 125 8 Summary 126 5 ArcticStraits 128 1 NorthwestPassage 131 1.1 VoyageoftheSSManhattan 134 1.2 VoyageoftheUSCGCPolarSea 136 1.3 EuropeanUnionandChina 137 1.4 1988ArcticCooperationAgreement 139 1.5 Concernsaboutaprecedent 141 2 NorthernSeaRoute 143 2.1 Vil’Kitskiiincidents 145 2.2 OpeningoftheNorthernSeaRoute 146 3 AssessmentofCanada’sandRussia’slegal positions 148 4 Canada–Russiacooperation 150 5 Canada–UnitedStatescooperation 154 6 BeringStrait 157 7 UnimakPass 159 8 NaresStrait 161 9 Multilateralmechanismsavailableto“strait states” 163 10 Submarinevoyages 167 11 Summary 169 Cambrdige University Press Not for sale or distribution. xii contents 6 Environmentalprotection 171 1 Speciesprotection 171 1.1 Northernfurseals 171 1.2 Polarbears 172 1.3 Whales 176 2 Fisheries 178 2.1 BeringSea“donuthole” 178 2.2 ArcticOceanFisheriesOrganization 179 3 Shipping 185 3.1 Shipsafety 185 3.2 Ballastwater 188 4 Nuclearaccidents 189 5 Deep-seamining 191 6 Air-bornepollution 194 6.1 Persistentorganicpollutants 194 6.2 Arctichaze 195 6.3 Blackcarbon 197 7 Oilspills 200 7.1 UnitedStates 200 7.2 Canada 201 7.3 Norway 204 7.4 Greenland 205 7.5 Russia 207 7.6 Liabilityforoilspills 209 7.7 Agreementonoilspillpreparednessandresponse 212 8 Ecosystem-basedmanagement 213 9 Summary 215 7 Indigenouspeoples 216 1 Politicalparticipationandself-determination 218 2 Indigenousrightsandstateclaims 222 3 Indigenoustransnationalismandinternational law-making 225 4 CircumpolarInuitDeclarationonSovereignty 230 5 Doessovereignty“beginathome”? 234 6 Sealproductexports 236 7 Indigenouspeoplesandhumanrights 238 8 Indigenouspeoplesandwhaling 240 9 Indigenouspeoplesandnuclearweapons 243 10 Summary 244 Cambrdige University Press Not for sale or distribution. contents xiii 8 Security 245 1 De-escalatingthePole 248 2 China 254 3 Arcticnuclear-weapon-freezones 256 4 Non-stateactors 261 4.1 Drug-smuggling 262 4.2 Illegalimmigration 263 4.3 Traffickingofweaponsofmassdestruction 265 4.4 Terroristattacksonaircraft 267 4.5 Protestsagainstoilandgasinfrastructure 268 5 Searchandrescue 269 6 Summary 279 Conclusion 280 Bibliography 284 Index 297 Cambrdige University Press Not for sale or distribution.