L First: Edit:ion Professor of Public International La'H/;, L.Tniversity of Bristol ____" ... _ _ ... __ ... _.... 1?R.E S ~r------------------ ~~ I f i (. I t OXFORD OUTLINE CONTENTS UNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford oX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in INTRODUCTION: INTERNATIONAL LAW IN PRACTICE Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai REFLECTIONS FROM THE INTERNATIONAL COURT 3 Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kqng Istanbul Karachi Kolkata HE Judge Rosalyn Higgins, DBE, QC Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Sao Paulo Shanghai Taipei Tokyo Toronto Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press THE PINOCHET CASE-SOME PERSONAL REFLECTIONS 7 in the UK and in certain other countries The Rt Han The Lord Millett Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York THE PERSPECTIVE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW -FROM THE BAR 11 © Editorial material and arrangement Malcolm D. Evans 2003 Ian Brownlie, CBE, QC © Individual chapters-the several contributors 2003 The moral rights of the author have been asserted REFLECTIONS FROM THE PRACTICE OF INTERNATIONAL LITIGATION 15 Database right Oxford University Press (maker) Campbell McLachlan First published2003 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, A PERSONAL PERSPECTIVE ON INTERNATIONAL LAW 21 without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, Ralph Zacklin, Assistant Secretary-General, United Nations or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics-rights organizations. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, THE PERSPECTIVE OF A FOREIGN MINISTRY LEGAL ADVISER 25 Oxford University Press, at the address above Michael Wood You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on anyacquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available ISBN 0-19-925114-2 PART I THE HISTORY AND THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2 Typeset in Adobe Minion A SHORT HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 31 by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk Stephen C Neff Printed in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall 2 SOME COMMON HERESIES ABOUT INTERNATIONAL LAW: SUNDRY THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES 59 lain Scobbie 3 WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL LAW FOR? 89 Martti Koskenniemi PART II THE STRUCTURE OF INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATION 4 THE SOVRCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 117 Hugh Thirlway vi, . OUTLINE CONTENTS OUTLINE CONTENTS vii 5 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND 'RELATIVE NORMATIVITY' 145 15 ISSUES OF ADMISSIBILITY AND THE LAW ON INTERNATIONAL Dinah Shelton RESPONSIBILITY 473 Phoebe Okowa 6 THE PRACTICAL WORKING OF THE LAW OF TREATIES 173 Malgosia Fitzmaurice PART VI RESPONDING TO BREACHES OF INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS PART III THE SUBJECTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL ORDER 16 COUNTERMEASURES AND SANCTIONS 505 ND White and A Abass 7 STATES AND RECOGNITION IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 205 Colin Warbrick 17 THE MEANING OF DISPUTE SETTLEMENT 529 John Merrills 8 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 269 DapoAkande 18 THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE 559 Hugh Thirlway 9 THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL SYSTEM 299 Robert McCorquodale 19 THE USE OF FORCE AND THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL ORDER 589 Christine Gray PART IV 'THE SCOPE OF SOVEREIGNTY 10 JURISDICTION 329 PART VII THE APPLICATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW Vaughan Lowe 20 THE LAW OF THE SEA 623 Malcolm D Evans 11 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND RESTRAINTS ON THE EXERCISE OF JURISDICTION BY NATIONAL COURTS OF STATES 357 Hazel Fox 21 INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 657 Catherine Redgwell 12 IMMUNITIES ENJOYED BY OFFICIALS OF STATES AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 387 22 INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC LAW 689 . Chanaka Wickremasinghe Gerhard Loibl 13 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL AND 23 INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW 721 Antonio Cassese NATIONAL LAW 415 Eileen Denza 24 INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS 757 Henry J Steiner PART V RESPONSIBILITY 25 THE LAW OF WAR (INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW) 789 Christopher Greenwood 14 THE NATURE AND FORMS OF INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY 445 James Crawford and Simon Olleson CONTENTS ix v The Nineteenth Century (1815-1919) 41 CONTENTS A The Positivist Tradition 41 B Natural-law Remnants 46 'C The Historicist (or <Romantic') Tradition 47 INTRODUCTION 'BY THE EDITOR xxvi VI The Twentieth and Twenty-first Centuries (1919- 50 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xxviii ABBREVIATIONS xxxiii A The Inter-war Period 50 TABLE OF INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS xxxix B After 1945 52 TABLE OF INTERNATIONAL CASES xlvi VII Conclusion 56 TABLE OF STATUTES BY COUNTRY xlix TABLE OF DOMESTIC CASE LAW BY COUNTRY 1 References 56 Further Reading 58 2 SOME COMMON HERESIES ABOUT INTERNATIONAL LAW: INTRODUCTION: INTERNATIONAL LAW IN PRACTICE SUNDRY THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES 59 lain Scobbie REFLECTIONS FROM THE INTERNATIONAL COURT 3 HE Judge Rosalyn Higgins, DBE, QC Summary 59 I Introduction: Theory Matters 60 THE PINOCHET CASE-SOME PERSONAL REFLECTIONS 7 II What is a <Theory' and What is it For? 61 The Rt Hon The Lord Millett III The Legal Structure of the Cold War: Liberal Democracy Versus THE PERSPECTIVE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW FROM THE BAR 11 Marxist-Leninism 67 Ian Brownlie, CBE, QC A The New Haven School 68 REFLECTIONS FROM THE PRACTICE OF INTERNATIONAL B Soviet Theory 72 LITIGATION 15 C New Haven and Soviet Approaches Compared 76 Campbell McLachlan IV New Order For a New World? 78 A PERSONAL PERSPECTIVE ON INTERNATIONAL LAW 21 V And in the End 82 Ralph Zacklin, Assistant Secretary-General United Nations References 83 THE PERSPECTIVE OF A FOREIGN MINISTRY LEGAL ADVISER 25 Further Reading 86 Michael Wood 3 WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL LAW FOR? 89 Martti Koskenniemi PART I THE HISTORY AND THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW Summary 89 The Paradox of Objectives 89 A SHORT HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 31 Stephen C Neff II Converging Interests? 91 Summary 31 III The Significance of Statehoo,d 94 I Introduction 31 IV Into Pragmatism? 97 II Ancient Worlds 32 V A Tradition of Anti-Formalism 100 III The Middle Ages: The Natural Law Era 34 VI Instrumentalism, Formalism, and the Production of an IV The Classical Age (1600-1815) 37 International Political Community 103 x CONTENTS CONTENTS xi VII Beyond Instrumentalism and Formalism 105 B Hierarchy Among Treaties Governing the Same Topic 163 VIII Between Hegemony and Fragmentation: A Mini-history 108 C Hierarchy Among Regimes 164 IX Legal Formalism and International Justice 110 IV 'Soft Law' 166 References 112 V Conclusion 17l References 171 Further Reading 172 PART II THE STRUCTURE OF INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATION 6 THE PRACTICAL WORKING OF THE LAW OF TREATIES 173 Malgosia Fitzmaurice 4 THE SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 117 Hugh Thirlway Summary 173 Summary 117 I Introduction 173 I Introduction: What are Sources of Law? 117 II Basic Concepts and Structures 174 II The Enumeration of the Traditional Sources of International Law: A What is a Treaty? 174 Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice 120 B The Vienna Conventions 175 A Treaties and Conventions in Force 121 III The Anatomy of a Treaty 177 B Custom 124 A The Making of Treaties 177 C The General Principles of Law 130 B Authority to Conclude Treaties 177 D Subsidiary Sources: Judicial Decisions and Teachings 132 C Expression of Consent to be Bound 178 III The Relationship Between the Sources of International Law 134 D Invalidity of Treaties 180 A Relationship Between Treaty and Custom 134 E Amendment and Modification 181 B The Hierarchy of Sources 136 F Termination and Suspension of the Operation of Treaties 182 IV Is the Enumeration of Article 38 Exhaustive? Possible New or IV The Scope of Legal Obligations 183 Additional Sources 138 A The Principle Pacta Sunt Servanda . 183 A How Can New Sources Come into Existence? 138 B Treaties and Third States 184 B Some Additional Sources or Quasi-Sources That Have Been Suggested 139 V General Principles of Interpretation 185 V Conclusion 142 A General Issues 185 References 143 B Practice 186 Further Reading 143 C .T ravaux Preparatoires 188 D The Object and Purpose of a Treaty 189 5 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND 'RELATIVE NORMATIVITY' 145 E The Principle of Effectiveness 189 Dinah Shelton F Plurilingual Treaties 190 Summary· 145 VI Reservations to Treaties 191 Introduction: The Concept of Relative Normativity 145 A The Genocide Convention Case 191 II The Assertion of Peremptory Norms 150 B The Regime of the 1969 Vienna Convention 192 III Hierarchy Among Conflicting Norms and Procedures 159 C The Problem of Reservations to Human Rights Treaties 194 A Hierarchy Within a Single Treaty 160 D Interpretative Declarations 195 xii CONTENTS CONTENTS xiii VII Problems Concerning the Grounds for Termination 196 8 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 269 A Material Breach 196 DapoAkande B Supervening Impossibility of Performance 198 Summary 269 C Fundamental Change of Circumstances 198 I Introduction 269 VIII Conclusion 200 A History and Role of International Organizations 270 References 200 B Definition, Distinctions, and Differences 270 Further Reading 201 C Is there a Common Law of International Organizations? 271 II Legal Personality 272 A Personality in International Law 270 PART III THE SUBJECTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL B Objective Legal Personality and Relations with Non-member States 275 LEGAL ORDER C Personality in Domestic Law 276 7 STATES AND RECOGNITION IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 205 III Interpretation of Constituent Instruments 278 Colin Warbrick A Who is Empowered to Interpret? 278 Summary 205 B What are the Relevant Principles of Interpretation to be Applied? 280 I States 206 IV Powers of International Organizations 282 A Introduction 206 B History 210 A Implied Powers 282 B Decision-making Powers 283 C Self-determination 213 C Ultra Vires Decisions of International Organizations 285 D Personality-What it means to be a Legal Person 217 E Statehood as Personality-What it takes to be a State 220 V Privileges and Immunities 286 F The Rights and Duties of States-What it means to be a State 231 A Sources of Privileges and Immunities 286 G The (Juridical' State 232 B Scope of Privileges and Immunities 287 H Conclusion . 236 VI The United Nations System 291 II Recognition 236 A The Structure of the United Nations 291 A Introduction 236 B Principal Organs of the United Nations 293 B The Tinoco Arbitration 238 VII Conclusion 295 C Legal Nature, Legal Consequences of the Recognition Decision 238 References 296 D Recognizing, Not Recognizing, Non-recognition 241 E Recognition of Governments 242 Further Reading 297 F International and Domestic Legal Consequences 247 G The Declaratory/Constitutive Debate 248 H International Organizations-Membership and Credentials 250 9 THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL SYSTEM 299 Practice-the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia After 1989 254 Robert McCorquodale Constituting States-State-building 259 Summary 299 III Conclusion 261 Introduction 299 References 262 A The Individual 300 Further Reading 266 B Individuals in the International Legal System 300 xiv CONTENTS CONTENTS XV II International Rights and Responsibilities 304 IV Conclusion 353 A Individual Rights 304 References 354 B Individual Responsibility 306 Further Reading 354 III International Claims 307 11 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND RESTRAINTS ON THE EXERCISE OF A Bringing International Claims 307 JURISDICTION BY NATIONAL COURTS OF STATES 357 B International Human Rights Law 309 Hazel Fox. C International Economic Law 311 Summary 357 D Immunities 314 I Introduction 357 IV Creation, Development, and Enforcement of International Law 314 II State Immunity 359 A Right of Self-Determination 315 A Origins of the Plea of State Immunity 359 B Indigenous Peoples 316 B Development of the Common Law Relating to State Immunity 359 C Non-governmental Organizations 317 C Development in Civil Courts and the USA 361 D Jurists 320 D Present Day Sources of the International Law of State Immunity 362 V Conclusions 321 E The Elements Constituting the Plea of State Immunity 363 References 322 F Definition of the Foreign State for the Purpose of State Immunity 366 Further Reading 325 G Exceptions to Adjudication Jurisdiction 366 H Immunity from Execution 371 III The Other Two Avoidance Techniques 376 PART IV THE SCOPE o.F SOVEREIGNTY A Act of State 376 10 JURISDICTION 329 B Non-justiciability 377 Vaughan Lowe IV The Three Avoidance Techniques Compared 378 Summary 329 V The Arguments For and Against the Use of Avoidance Techniques 380 Introduction 329 VI Challenges to Immunity and Judicial Restraint 381 A The Meaning of <Jurisdiction' 329 VII Conclusion 383 B The Significance of the Principles of Jurisdiction 330 References 384 'C The Doctrinal Analysis of Jurisdiction 331 Further Reading 384 II Prescriptive Jurisdiction 333 A The Territorial Principle 336 12 IMMUNITIES ENJOYED BY OFFICIALS OF STATES AND B The National Principle '339 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 387 Chanaka Wickremasinghe C The Protective Principle 342 Summary 387 D The Universal Principle 343 E Treaty-Based Extensions of Jurisdiction 343 I Introduction 388 F Controversial Bases of Prescriptive Jurisdiction 345 II Diplomatic Relations 391 G Inadequacies of the Traditional Approach 347 A The Scheme of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 392 III The Fundamental Principle Governing Enforcement Jurisdiction 351 B Jurisdictional Immunities 395 XVI CONTENTS CONTENTS xvii C Remedies in Cases of Abuse 396 E Can a Treaty Prevail Over a National Constitutional Norm? 434 III Consular Relations 397 F Should the Executive Direct or Guide the National Court? 434 IV Heads of State, Heads of Government, and Ministers for Foreign G Should a National Court Apply a Foreign Law which Conflicts with Affairs 398 International Law? 436 A Heads of State 398 H Are there Questions of International Law which National Courts should Decline to Answer? 437 B Heads of Government and Ministers for Foreign Affairs 400 VI Conclusion: Elements of a Happy Relationship 439 V Special Missions 401 References 440 VI The Immunities of Other State Officials 403 Further Reading 441 VII Officials of International Organizations 404 VIII The Scope of Irnmunities-Immunity and Impunity Distinguished 406 IX Conclusions 411 PART V RESPONSIBILITY References 411 14 THE NATURE AND FORMS OF INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY 445 Further Reading ·413 James Crawford and Simon Olleson Summary 445 13 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL LAW 415 The Scope of International Responsibility: Introduction and Eileen Denza Overview 446 Summary 4.15 II State Responsibility: Issues of Classification and Characterization 449 I Introduction 415 A Responsibility under International or National Law? 449 B The Typology of State Responsibility 450 II The Approach of International Courts and Tribunals 416 III The Elements of State Responsibility 453 A Where National Law Causes Breach of International Law 417 B International Law Looks Mainly to the Result 419 A Attribution of Conduct to the State 454 B Breach of an International Obligation of the State 458 III The Approach of National Parliaments and National Courts 420 C Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness: Defences or Excuses for IV The Spectrum of Constitutional Rules 422 Breaches of International Law 462 A The Netherlands 422 IV The Content of International Responsibility 465 B Germany 423 V Invocation of Responsibility: Responses by the Injured State and C France 424 Other States 468 D Russia 424 VI Conclusion: Further Development of the Law of International E The United States 425 Responsibility? 470 F The United Kingdom 426 References 471 V Some Problems Which Arise in National Courts 428 Further Reading 471 A Does a Rule of Customary International Law Prevail Over Conflicting National Law? 428 15 ISSUES OF ADMISSIBILITY AND THE LAW ON INTERNAT,IONAL B What is the Meaning of an International Law Rule in the Context of RESPONSIBILITY 473 Domestic Law? 429 Phoebe Okowa C Is the International Rule Directly Applicable and Directly Effective? 430 Summary 473 D Does a Treaty Prevail Over Inconsistent National Law? 432 I Introduction 474 xviii CONTENTS CONTENTS xix II Legal Interest as a Pre-requisite to Admissibility of Claims 474 D Countermeasures and Third States 514 A Rationale of International Law Rules on Locus Standi 475 III Economic Coercion 518 B Modalities of Establishing of Legal Interest 476 IV Sanctions 522 III The Bases of Diplomatic Protection 477 A Definition of Sanctions 522 A Nationality as the Basis of Legal Interest in Indirect Claims 477 B Limitations upon Sanctions 524 B Establishing Nationality for Purposes of Diplomatic Protection 479 V Conclusion 526 C The Nationality of Corporations 483 References 527 D Applying the Nationality Rule 485 Further Reading 528 IV Admissibility in Cases Concerning Obligations Owed to a Plurality of States 488 17 THE MEANS OF DISPUTE SETTLEMENT 528 John Merrills A Introduction 488 B Treaty Instruments Protecting Collective Interests 490 Summary 529 C Litigation in the Public Interest and the Enforcement of Erga Omnes I Introduction 529 Obligations 490 II Diplomatic Methods 531 V Admissibility of Claims and the Rule on Exhaustion of Local Remedies 493 A Negotiation 531 A Introduction 493 B Mediation 533 B The Content of the Rule 494 C Inquiry 535 C The Application of the Rule in the Context of Mixed Claims 495 D Conciliation 537 D Nature of the Rule 497 III Legal Methods 539 E Which View Represents the Law? 498 A Arbitration 539 F The Exclusion of the Local Remedies Rule 499 B The International Court of Justice 541 VI Conclusion 500 C Other Courts and Tribunals 543 References 501 D The Place of Legal Methods 544 Further Reading 502 IV International Organizations and Dispute Settlement 547 A Regional Organizations 547 B The United Nations 548 PART VI RESPONDING TO BREACHES OF C The Charter System in Practice 550 INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS D The Value and Limitations of Organizations 552 16 COUNTERMEASURES AND SANCTIONS 505 V Conclusion 553 ND White and A Abass References 554 Summary 505 Further Reading 557 Introduction: Self-help in International Law 505 II Countermeasures 508 18 THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE 559 Hugh Thirlway A Definition of Countermeasures 508 Summary 559 B Reprisals and Retorsion 510 C Limitations upon Countermeasures and other Non-forcible I Introduction 559 Measures taken by States 512 II History 560 L xx CONTENTS CONTENTS XXI III Structure and Composition 562 G The Role of the Security Council 606 N Procedure 564 V The Use of Force Under Chapter VII UN Charter 608 V The Court's Jurisdiction 566 A Measures Under Article 41 608 A Jurisdiction: Structural Limitations 566 B The Use of Force Under Chapter VII UN Charter 608 B Jurisdiction in Particular Cases 568 C Implied Authorization of Force? 610 C Jurisdiction and its Exercise 571 VI UN Peacekeeping 610 D Verification of Jurisdiction and Admissibility: Preliminary Objections 572 A The Inception of Peacekeeping 610 VI Other Incidental Proceedings 574 B Peacekeeping After the End of the Cold War 611 A Requests for the Indication of Provisional Measures 574 C The Transformation of Peacekeeping: Yugoslavia and Somalia 1991-95 612 B Parties: Joinder of Cases; Intervention by Third States 576 D Peacekeeping in Africa 613 C Interpretation and Revision of Judgments 579 E Peacekeeping After the Brahimi Report 614 VII Effect of the Decisions of the Court 579 VII Regional Action Under Chapter VIII UN Charter 614 VIII Advisory Proceedings 582 A A Greater Role for Regional Organizations 615 IX The Court Past and Present: An Assessment 585 B Controversy as to the Interpretation of Chapter VIII 615 Further Reading 587 C The OECS Intervention in Grenada (1983) 616 D Regional Peacekeeping After the Cold War 616 19 THE USE OF FORCE AND THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL ORDER 589 VIII Conclusion 618 Christine Gray Summary 589 References 618 I Introduction 589 Further Reading 619 A The UN Charter Scheme 590 II The Prohibition of the Use of Force in Article 2(4) UN Charter 591 PART VII THE APPLICATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW A The Use of Force in 'International Relations' 592 20 THE LAW OF THE SEA 623 B The Meaning of 'Threat or Use of Force' 592 Malcolm D Evans C The Use of Force 'Against the Territorial Integrity and Political Independence of Any State,-or in Any Other Manner Inconsistent Summary 623 with the Purposes of the United Nations' 593 Introduction 623 D Humanitarian Intervention 595 II Constructing Baselines 626 III Intervention, Civil Wars, and Invitation 598 A Introduction: The Normal Rule 626 IV Self-defence 599 B Straight Baselines 626 A The Scope of Self-defence: Necessity and Proportionality 600 C Bays 627 B Anticipatory or Pre-emptive Self-defence 601 D Archipelagoes 628 C The Meaning of 'Armed Attack' 602 III The Internal Waters, Territorial Sea, and Contiguous Zone 629 D The Use of Force in Protection of Nationals 602 A Introduction 629 E Self-defence Against Terrorism 603 B Jurisdiction of the Coastal State 630 F Collective Self-defence 605 C Navigation in the Territorial Sea 632