INTERNATIONAL LAW Fourth Edition EDITED BY MALCOLM D EVANS Professor of Public International Law, University of Bristol OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS OUTLINE CONTENTS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, PART I THE HISTORY AND THEORY OF and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of INTERNATIONAL LAW Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Editorial material and arrangement Malcolm D Evans 2014 A SHORT HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 3 Individual chapters—the several contributors 2014 Stephen C Neff The moral rights of the authors have been asserted First edition 2003 WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL LAW FOR? 29 Second edition 2006 Martti Koskenniemi Third edition 2010 Impression: 2 A VIEW OF DELFT: SOME THOUGHTS ABOUT THINKING All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the ABOUT INTERNATIONAL LAW 53 prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted lain Scobbie by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above PART II THE STRUCTURE OF INTERNATIONAL You must not circulate this work in any other form LEGAL OBLIGATION and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Public sector information reproduced under Open Government Licence v1.0 THE SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 91 (http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/open-government-licence.htm) Hugh Thirlway Crown Copyright material reproduced with the permission of the Controller, HMSO (under the terms of the Click Use licence) SOFT LAW IN INTERNATIONAL LAW-MAKING 118 Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America Alan Boyle British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available INTERNATIONAL LAW AND ‘RELATIVE NORMATIVITY’ 137 Library of Congress Control Number: 2013952621 Dinah Shelton ISBN 978-0-19-965467~3 Printed in Great Britain by THE PRACTICAL WORKING OF THE LAW OF TREATIES 166 Ashford Colour Press Ltd Malgosia Fitzmaurice Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. 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PART III THE SUBJECTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL ORDER STATEHOOD, SELE-DETERMINATION, AND RECOGNITION 201 Matthew Craven INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 248 Dapo Akande vi OUTLINE CONTENTS OUTLINE CONTENTS vii PART VIL THE APPLICATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 10 THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL SYSTEM 280 Robert McCorquodale 22 THE LAW OF THE SEA 651 Malcolm D Evans PART IV THE SCOPE OF SOVEREIGNTY 23 INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 688 Catherine Redgwell 11 JURISDICTION 309 Christopher Staker 24 INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT LAW 727 Surya P Subedi 12 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND RESTRAINTS ON THE EXERCISE OF JURISDICTION BY NATIONAL COURTS OF STATES 336 752 Hazel Fox 25 INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW Robert Cryer 13 IMMUNITIES ENJOYED BY OFFICIALS OF STATES AND 783 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 379 26 INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW Sir Nigel Rodley Chanaka Wickremasinghe 14 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL AND 27 THE LAW OF ARMED CONELICT (INTERNATIONAL 821 NATIONAL LAW 412 HUMANITARIAN LAW) David Turns Eileen Denza PART V RESPONSIBILITY 15 THE CHARACTER AND FORMS OF INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY 443 James Crawford and Simon Olleson 16 ISSUES OF ADMISSIBILITY AND THE LAW ON 477 INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY Phoebe Okowa 17 THE RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT 509 Spencer Zifcak PART VI RESPONDING TO BREACHES OF INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS 18 COUNTERMEASURES AND SANCTIONS 537 Nigel D White and Ademola Abass 19 THE MEANS OF DISPUTE SETTLEMENT 363 John Merrills 20 THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE 589 Hugh Thirlway 21 THE USE OF FORCE AND THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL ORDER 618 Christine Gray CONTENTS Preface to the Fourth Edition XXV From the Editor’s Introduction to the First Edition XXvi New to this Edition xxvii Notes on Contributors XXvili Abbreviations xxxiii Table of International Instruments and Other Documents XXXxiX Table of Domestic Instruments by Country liii Table of International Cases Wi Table of Domestic Cases by Country Ixvii PART I THE HISTORY AND THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 1 A SHORT HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 3 Stephen C Neff Summary 3 I Introduction 3 Il Ancient Worlds 4 UI The Middle Ages: The Natural Law Era ° A. The Universalist Outlook: Medieval Natural Law 6 B_ The Pluralist Outlook: The Italian City-states 6 C Developments in State Practice 7 IV The Classical Age (1600-1815) 8 A Grotius and Hobbes 9 B_ The Laws of Nature and Nations in Action 11 V The Nineteenth Century (1815-1919) 12 A “The Public Law and System of Europe’ 12 B_ The Positivist Revolution 13 C Dissident Perspectives 16 D._ The Achievements of the Nineteenth Century 17 VI The Twentieth and Twenty-first Centuries (1919- ) 19 A. The Inter-war Period 19 B After 1945 21 VII Conclusion 24 References 24 Further Reading 27 ms x CONTENTS CONTENTS xi 2 WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL LAW FOR? 29 II Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice 94 Martti Koskenniemi A. Treaties and Conventions in Force 95 Summary 29 B Custom 97 I The Paradox of Objectives C The General Principles of Law 104 re ing Interests? 29 D Subsidiary Sources: Judicial Decisions and Teachings 105 onverging Interests? The Si Bt 6 31 III The Relationships Between the Sources of International Law 107 IIT The Significance of Statehood 33 A Relationship Between Treaty and Custom 107 IV Into Pragmatism? 35 B_ The Hierarchy of Sources 109 V A Tradition of Anti-formalism 39 IV Is the Enumeration of Article 38 Exhaustive? Possible New or VI Instrumentalism, Formalism, and the Production of an International Additional Sources 110 Political Community 2 A How Can New Sources Come into Existence? 110 VII Beyond Instrumentalism and Formalism Ad B Some Additiiti onal Sources or Quasi-i-s ources That Have Been Suggested 111 VII Between Hegemony and Fragmentation: A Mini-history 45 V Conclusioi n 115 . 116 IX Legal Formalism and International Justice 47 References References 49 Further Readini g 117 5 3 , - 118 3 A VIEW OF DELFT: SOME THOUGHTS ABOUT THINKING ‘lan Boyle IN INTERNATIONAL Layee ABOUT INTERNATIONAL LAW 53 oye 118 Summary Iain Scobbie 53 I The Significance of Soft Law 118 Summary I The Perils of Philosophy 54 II What is Soft Law? 119 Il The Prologue—The View from Delphi 55 IH Treaties or Soft Law? 121 III Law, Politics, and Instrumentalism 58 IV Soft Law as Part of the Multilateral Treaty-making Process 123 IV The View from Delft 61 V Treaties as Soft Law 126 V But What is a Theory? 63 VI Soft Law General Principles 128 VI Provenance and Meaning 64 VII Soft Law and Customary Law 130 VII Liberal Democracy v Marxism-Leninism—Poles Apart? 67 VIII Conclusions 133 A. The New Haven School 68 References 134 B Soviet Theory 71 Further Reading 135 C New Haven and Soviet Approaches Compared 74 VIII Beyond the State, its Interests, and Instrumentalism 76 6 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND ‘RELATIVE NORMATIVITY’ 137 79 Dinah Shelton IX A View of Delft 137 80 Summary References Further Reading 87 I Introduction: The Concept of Relative Normativity 137 II Peremptory Norms 142 A. Theoretical Approaches 142 PART II THE STRUCTURE OF INTERNATIONAL B Textual References 143 LEGAL OBLIGATION C International Jurisprudence 145 D National Jurisprudence 149 4 THE SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 91 III Hierarchy Among Conflicting Norms and Procedures 152 A Hierarchy Within a Single Treaty 153 Hugh Thirlway Summary 9] B_ Hierarchy Among Treaties Governing the Same Topic 155 C Hierarchy Among Regimes 156 I Introduction: What are Sources of Law? 9] xiii xii CONTENTS CONTENTS IV ‘Soft Law’ 159 PART III THE SUBJECTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL V Conclusion 163 LEGAL ORDER References 164 Further Reading 165 8 STATEHOOD, SELF-DETERMINATION, AND RECOGNITION 201 Matthew Craven 7 THE PRACTICAL WORKING OF THE LAW OF TREATIES 166 Malgosia Fitzmaurice Summary 201 Summary 166 Introduction 201 nl Introduction 166 II History 206 I Basic Concepts and Structures 166 Ill Defining the State 214 — 218 A What is a Treaty? 166 A Population 219 B_ The Vienna Conventions 169 B Territory 221 C Independent Government III The Anatomy of a Treaty 170 A The Making of Treaties 170 IV Self-determination 226 B_ Authority to Conclude Treaties 170 Democracy and Human Rights 232 C Expression of Consent to be Bound 171 VI Statehood and Recognition 236 D Invalidity of Treaties 174 241 Vil Conclusion E Amendment and Modification 175 F Termination and Suspension of the Operation of Treaties 176 References 243 IV The Scope of Legal Obligations 176 Further Reading 247 A. The Principle Pacta Sunt Servanda 176 248 B_ Treaties and Third States 177 9 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS Dapo Akande V General Principles of Interpretation 178 248 178 Summary General Issues >o Practice 179 Introduction 248 Travaux Préparatoires 181 A. History and Role of International Organizations 248 The Object and Purpose of a Treaty 182 B Definition, Distinctions, and Differences 249 o m The Principle of Effectiveness 182 C_ Is there a Common Law of International Organizations? 251 m The Dynamic (Evolutive) Interpretation of Treaties and the European II Legal Personality 251 Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) 183 A. Personality in International Law 251 G Plurilingual Treaties 183 B Objective Legal Personality and Relations with Non-member States 254 184 255 VI Reservations to Treaties C Personality in Domestic Law 184 A. The Genocide Convention Case 186 Ill Interpretation of Constituent Instruments 256 B_ The Regime of the 1969 Vienna Convention 187 A Who is Empowered to Interpret? 257 C Guide to Practice on Reservations to Treaties 188 B What are the Relevant Principles of Interpretation to be Applied? 258 D The Problem of Reservations to Human Rights Treaties 260 191 IV Powers of International Organizations E Interpretative Declarations 260 191 A Implied Powers VIL Problems Concerning the Grounds for Termination 261 191 B Decision-making Powers A Material Breach C. Ultra Vires Decisions of International Organizations 262 193 B_ Supervening Impossibility of Performance 194 Responsibility of International Organizations 265 C Fundamental Change of Circumstances VI Privileges and Immunities 268 VIII Conclusion 195 A. Sources of Privileges and Immunities 268 References 195 B Scope of Privileges and Immunities 269 Further Reading 196 VI The UN System 272 A. The Structure of the UN 273 B_ Principal Organs of the UN 274 CONTENTS XV CONTENTS VII Conclusion 276 III The Fundamental Principle Governing Enforcement Jurisdiction 331 References 277 IV Conclusion 333 Further Reading 279 References 333 Further Reading 335 10 THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL SYSTEM 280 12 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND RESTRAINTS ON THE EXERCISE Robert McCorquodale OF JURISDICTION BY NATIONAL COURTS OF STATES 336 Summary 280 Hazel Fox I Introduction 280 Summary 336 A. The Individual 281 I Overview 336 B_ Individuals in the International Legal System 281 A Introduction 336 II International Rights and Responsibilities 284 B State Immunity, Act of State, and Non-justiciability as 338 A. Individual Rights 284 Avoidance Techniques B Individual Responsibility 286 II State Immunity 339 339 II AI nteBrrniangtiinogn alI ntCelrnaaitmiso nal Claims 228888 Se DOreivgeilnso pmofe ntthe oPfl etah e ofC oStmatme onIm muLnawi tyR elating to State Immunity 339 A Development in Civil Courts and the USA 341 B International Human Rights Law 290 DC IInmtmeurnniattiioensa l Economic Law 229914 n TPhree seEnlte mDeanyt s SoCuorncsetsi tuoft itnhge Ithnet erPnleaat ioonf alSt atLea wI momf uSntiattey Immunity 3344]4 IV Creation, Development, and Enforcement of International Law 294 Q Definition of the Foreign State for the Purpose of State Immunity 335419 Exceptions to Adjudication Jurisdiction A Right of Self-determination 295 358 H Immunity from Enforcement B Indigenous Peoples 296 III The Other Two Avoidance Techniques 365 C Non-governmental Organizations 296 365 D Jurists 299 A Act of State 366 B Non-justiciability V_ Conclusions 300 IV Comparison and Evaluation of the Three Avoidance Techniques 370 References 302 V_ The Arguments For and Against the Use of Avoidance Techniques 370 Further Reading 305 VI Challenges to Immunity and Judicial Restraint 37) VII The Exclusionary Procedural Nature of the Plea of State Immunity 373 PART IV THE SCOPE OF SOVEREIGNTY VIII Conclusion 376 376 References 11 JURISDICTION 309 377 Further Reading Christopher Staker Summary 309 13 IMMUNITIES ENJOYED BY OFFICIALS OF STATES AND I Introduction 309 379 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS A. The Meaning of Jurisdiction’ 309 Chanaka Wickremasinghe B_ The Significance of the Principles of Jurisdiction 310 Summary 379 C The Doctrinal Analysis of Jurisdiction 311 379 I Introduction II Prescriptive Jurisdiction 313 II Diplomatic Relations 383 A. The Territorial Principle 316 B_ The National Principle 318 A. The Scheme of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 383 386 C. The Protective Principle 321 B Jurisdictional Immunities 387 D The Universal Principle 322 C Remedies in Cases of Abuse E_ Treaty-based Extensions of Jurisdiction 323 II] Consular Relations 388 F Controversial Bases of Prescriptive Jurisdiction 326 IV Special Missions 389 G Inadequacies of the Traditional Approach 328 am oa, s, xvi CONTENTS CONTENTS Xvii Holders of High-ranking Offices, such as Heads of State, Heads of Government, and Ministers for Foreign Affairs 392 PART V RESPONSIBILITY A Heads of State 392 B Heads of Government and Ministers for Foreign Affairs 394 15 THE CHARACTER AND FORMS OF INTERNATIONAL 443 VI The Immunities of Other State Officials 396 RESPONSIBILITY James Crawford and Simon Olleson VII Officials of International Organizations 399 Summary 443 Vill The Scope of Immunities for Serious Crimes under International The Scope of International Responsibility: Introduction and Overview 443 Law—Immunity and Impunity Distinguished 401 A Immunities Ratione Personae 402 II State Responsibility: Issues of Classification and Characterization 447 B_ Immunities Ratione Materiae 403 A. Responsibility under International or National Law? 448 C Immunities Before International Criminal Courts 405 B_ Typology of State Responsibility 449 IX Conclusion 408 I] The Elements of State Responsibility 452 A Attribution of Conduct 453 References 409 B_ Breach of an International Obligation 460 Further Reading 410 C Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness: Defences or Excuses for Breaches of International Law 464 14 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL AND IV The Content of International Responsibility 467 412 NATIONAL LAW Invocation of Responsibility: Responses by the Injured State and Eileen Denza Other States 471 Summary 412 VI Further Development of the Law of International Responsibility 474 Introduction 412 References 474 II The Approach of International Courts and Tribunals 413 A Where National Law Causes Breach of International Law 413 Further Reading 475 B_ International Law Looks Mainly to the Result 416 Websites 476 il The Approach of National Parliaments and National Courts 417 16 ISSUES OF ADMISSIBILITY AND THE LAW ON IV The Spectrum of Constitutional Rules 418 477 INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY A The Netherlands 419 Phoebe Okowa B Germany 419 C France 420 Summary 477 D Russia 421 Introduction 477 E The USA 422 II Legal Interest as a Pre-requisite to Admissibility of Claims 478 F The UK 424 A. Rationale of International Law Rules on Locus Standi 479 Some Problems Which Arise in National Courts 426 B Modalities of Establishing Legal Interest 480 A Does a Rule of Customary International Law Prevail Over Conflicting Iil ‘The Bases of Diplomatic Protection 481 National Law? 426 A Nationality as the Basis of Legal Interest in Indirect Claims 481 B What is the Meaning of an International Law Rule in the Context of B_ Establishing Nationality for Purposes of Diplomatic Protection 484 Domestic Law? 427 C_ The Nationality of Corporations 487 Is the International Rule Directly Applicable and Directly Effective? 428 D Applying the Nationality Rule 491 oyo Does a Treaty Prevail Over Inconsistent National Law? 430 IV Admissibility in Cases Concerning Obligations Owed to a Plurality M Can a Treaty Prevail Over a National Constitutional Norm? 431 m of States 494 M Should the Executive Direct or Guide the National Court? 432. 7A Should a National Court Apply a Foreign Law which Conflicts with A Introduction 494 Q B Treaty Instruments Protecting Collective Interests 496 International Law? 434 C Litigation in the Public Interest and the Enforcement of Erga Omnes H_ Are there Questions of International Law which National Courts should Obligations Stricto Sensu 497 Decline to Answer? 435 Admissibility of Claims and the Rule on Exhaustion of VI Conclusion: Elements of a Happy Relationship 437 Local Remedies 500 References 438 A. Introduction 500 Further Reading 440 B The Content of the Rule 500 XVili CONTENTS CONTENTS xix C The Application of the Rule in the Context of Mixed Claims 501 C Limitations upon Countermeasures and other Non-forcible Measures D Rule of Substance or Procedure 503 taken by States 545 E_ Which View Represents the Law? 504 D Countermeasures and Third States 547 F The Exclusion of the Local Remedies Rule 505 III Economic Coercion 550 VI Conclusion 505 IV Sanctions 552 References 506 A. Definition of Sanctions 552 Further Reading 508 B_ Limitations upon Sanctions 556 V_ Conclusion 559 17 THE RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT 509 References 560 Spencer Zifcak Further Reading 562 Summary 509 I Introduction 509 19 THE MEANS OE DISPUTE SETTLEMENT 563 John Merrills 1] Humanitarian Intervention in International Law 510 A Intervention with Security Council Authorization 512 Summary 563 B_ Intervention without Security Council Authorization 513 I Introduction 563 III The Birth of the ‘Responsibility to Protect’ 515 II Diplomatic Methods 564 IV The 2005 World Summit 517 A Negotiation 564 566 A_ Towards the 2005 World Summit 517 B Mediation B The World Summit Resolution 519 C Inquiry 568 569 V_ Post World Summit Recognition of the Doctrine 520 D Conciliation HI Legal Methods 571 VI The Secretary-General’s Elaboration of the Responsibility A Arbitration 571 to Protect 521 573 B. The International Court of Justice VII R2P in Libya and Syria 523 C Other Courts and Tribunals 574 A Libya 523 D The Place of Legal Methods 576 B_ Syria 524 IV International Organizations and Dispute Settlement 578 VHI_ Pillar 3 Intervention: Key Principles 527 A Regional Organizations 578 IX The Responsibility to Protect as International Law 528 B The United Nations 579 A State Practice 529 C_ The Charter System in Practice 580 B_ Opinio Juris 529 D The Value and Limitations of Organizations 582 C Security Council Practice 530 V_ Conclusion 584 References 531 References 584 Further Reading 533 Further Reading 587 589 20 THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE PART VI RESPONDING TO BREACHES OF Hugh Thirlway INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS Summary 589 18 COUNTERMEASURES AND SANCTIONS 537 I Introduction 589 Nigel D White and Ademola Abass II History 590 Summary 537 UI Structure and Composition 591 I Introduction: Self-help in International Law 537 IV Procedure 593 II Countermeasures 539 V_ The Court's Jurisdiction 595 A. Definition of Countermeasures 539 A Jurisdiction: Structural Limitations 595 B_ Reprisals and Retorsion 543 B Jurisdiction in Particular Cases 597 CONTENTS xxi CONTENTS C Jurisdiction and its Exercise 600 D Peacekeeping in Africa 642 D_ Verification of Jurisdiction and Admissibility: Preliminary Objections 601 E Peacekeeping After the Brahimi Report 643 VU Regional Action Under Chapter VIII of the UN Charter 643 VI Other Incidental Proceedings 603 A. Requests for the Indication of Provisional Measures 603 A A Greater Role for Regional Organizations 644 B Parties: Joinder of Cases; Intervention by Third States 605 B Controversy as to the Interpretation of Chapter VIII 644 C Interpretation and Revision of Judgments 607 C Regional Peacekeeping After the Cold War 645 VIN Conclusion 646 VII Effect of the Decisions of the Court 608 References 646 VOI Advisory Proceedings 610 Further Reading 647 IX The Court Past and Present: An Assessment 613 Websites 648 Citation of ICJ Cases 616 References 616 Further Reading 616 PART VII THE APPLICATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW Websites 617 22 THE LAW OF THE SEA 651 21 THE USE OF FORCE AND THE INTERNATIONAL Malcolm D Evans LEGAL ORDER 618 Summary 651 Christine Gray I Introduction 651 Summary 618 II Constructing Baselines 654 Introduction 618 A Introduction: The Normal Rule 654 A The UN Charter Scheme 619 B_ Straight Baselines 655 I The Prohibition of the Use of Force in Article 2(4) UN Charter 620 C Bays 655 A. The Use of Force in ‘International Relations’ 620 D Archipelagoes 656 B The Meaning of “Threat or Use of Force’ 62] Ill The Internal Waters, Territorial Sea, and Contiguous Zone 657 C_ The Use of Force ‘Against the Territorial Integrity and Political A Introduction 657 Independence of Any State, or in Any Other Manner Inconsistent with B_ Jurisdiction of the Coastal State 658 the Purposes of the United Nations’ 622 C Navigation in the Territorial Sea 660 D Humanitarian Intervention and Responsibility to Protect 623 IV The High Seas 664 I] Intervention, Civil Wars, and Invitation 626 A. The Freedoms of the Seas 664 IV Self-defence 627 B The Exceptions to Flag-State Jurisdiction 665 The Scope of Self-defence: Necessity and Proportionality 628 C Conclusion 670 S The Meaning of ‘Armed Attack’ 628 V_ Resource Jurisdiction 670 The Use of Force in Protection of Nationals 629 A The Continental Shelf 670 UA Anticipatory or Pre-emptive Self-defence 630 B_ The Exclusive Fishing Zone 672 The Impact of the Terrorist Attacks of 9/11 on the Law of Self-defence 631 C. The Exclusive Economic Zone 673 t A ‘Bush Doctrine’ of Pre-emptive Self-defence? 633 D The Deep Seabed 675 a Collective Self-defence 634 VI Delimitation of Maritime Zones between Opposite or T The Role of the Security Council 635 Adjacent States 676 The Use of Force Under Chapter VII of the UN Charter 636 A Equidistance or Equitable Principles? 676 A Measures Under Article 41 637 B Factors Affecting Delimitation 678 B_ The Use of Force Under Chapter VII of the UN Charter 637 VII Fisheries 680 C Implied or Revived Authorization of Force? 638 A. The Basic Scheme of Regulation 689 VI UN Peacekeeping 640 B Managing Fisheries 68] A The Inception of Peacekeeping 640 VHI Conclusion 683 B Peacekeeping After the End of the Cold War 641 References 684 C Challenges to Peacekeeping: Yugoslavia and Somalia 1991-5 642 Further Reading 686