International Journal of Kurdish Studies Vol.8 /2 (August2022) I International Journal of Kurdish Studies Vol.8 /2 (August2022) Editor-in-Chief Hasan KARACAN, Ph. D English Language Editor Aviva BUTT, (Australia) Turkish Language Editor Hüseyin KARACAN, MA About  International Journal of Kurdish Studies (IJOKS) is a peer-reviewed international journal published biannually, in January and August, which accepts papers written in Turkish, Kurdish (Kurmancî, Zazakî and Soranî), English or Russian languages.  Opinions by the authors of articles in the journal are solely those of the author, and do not necessarily reflect those of the journal, its editor, assistant editors, or advisory board.  Articles published by the journal may not be reproduced totally or in part without the express written permission of the publisher.  All papers in PDF format can be retrieved on our web site: http:// ijoks.com/  © All rights reserved. Abstracting & Indexing II International Journal of Kurdish Studies Vol.8 /2 (August2022) ADVISORY BOARD Prof. Dr. Hasan ÇİFTÇİ (Muş Alparslan University/Turkey Prof. Dr. Hasan TANRIVERDİ (Dicle University/Turkey) Prof. Dr. Abdullah Kurshid ABDULLAH (Salahaddin University, Iraq) Prof. Dr. Abdurrahman ACAR (Dicle University/Turkey) Prof. Dr. Mesut ERGİN (Dicle University/Turkey) Prof. Dr. Kinyaz İbrahim MİRZOYEV (Abai National Pedagogical University / Kazakhstan) Prof. Dr. Gulmira ABDIRASILOVA (Kazakh State Women's Teacher Training University / Kazakhstan) Prof. Dr. Vecihi SÖNMEZ (Yüzüncü Yıl University/Turkey) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mustafa ÖZTÜRK (Mardin Artuklu University/Turkey) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Giovanni BORRIELLO (Roma Tre University/Italy) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Eva DURAN (University of Roehampton / UK) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hajjah Jariah Mohd JAN (University of Malaya, MALAYSIA) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Safin Jalal FATHWLLA (Koya University /Kurdistan Region of Iraq) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zahir ERTEKİN (Bingöl University / Turkey) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Muhammet ÖZDEMİR (Katip Celebi University/Turkey) Asst. Prof. Dr. Murat DEMİR (Ankara Haci Bayram Veli University, Turkey) Asst. Prof. Dr. Abdulhadi TIMURTAS(Yüzüncü Yıl University/Turkey) Asst. Prof. Dr. Joanna BOCHENSKA (Jagiellonian University, Kraków / Poland) Asst. Prof. Dr. Necat KESKIN (Mardin Artuklu University/Turkey) Asst. Prof. Dr. Omed Barzan BRZOO (Germian University /Kurdistan Region of Iraq) Dr. Christian SINCLAIR (University of Arizona / USA) Dr. Salah Hwayyiz RASOOL (Koya University / Kurdistan Region of Iraq) Dr. Nawzad Anwer OMER (Koya University / Kurdistan Region of Iraq) Dr. Amir KARIMIPOUR (University of Isfahan / IRAN) Dr. Katya DUNAJEVA (Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest, HUNGARY) Dr. Aviva BUTT (Australia) International Journal of Kurdish Studies Vol.8 /2 (August2022) EDITORIAL We are together for the sixteenth issue, the August issue of 2022. It is very exciting to present this new issue of our e-journal, the International Journal of Kurdish Studies – a journal for Kurdish Studies. Every issue provides new ambitions and motivation for us to achieve a better journal, thanks to your fruitful and motivational support, collaboration and encouragement. The papers in this issue are as usual listed in the Contents. They are again our contribution to the field of Kurdish Studies. We thank the journal employees, authors, reviewers and all the others who have contributed to the preparation process. And, we hope to meet you all again in the forthcoming issues… Hasan KARACAN, Ph. D Editor in Chief International Journal of Kurdish Studies Vol.8 /2 (August2022) Vol. 8 Issue 2 (August 2022) CONTENTS Page Articles Social and Political Foundations of Constitutionalism in the Middle East: The First Constitutional Movements in Tunisia, Ottoman Turkey, Egypt, and Iran 150 Muhammed KARAKUŞ & Mehmet Akif KOÇ Relationship of History and Music: Traces of Historical Events in Kurdish Music and Evdalê Zeynikê 175 Tekin ÇİFÇİ USSR’s Policy Towards the Kurds of Türkiye, 1945-1960 191 Ali BAŞARAN Salim Barakat’s Genuine Novelistic Techniques: Sages of Darkness 227 Aviva BUTT Ethnicity and Identities in Iran: Progress and Equality 238 Kameel AHMADY An Assessment of Narrative Genres in Kurdish Folklore (Epos, Bayt and Narrative Songs) 273 Yaşar KAPLAN The Use of Metaphor in the Construction of the Representation of Reality with Ethical Principles on the Example of the Movie 'The Well' in Documentary Cinema 293 Şenay TANRIVERMİŞ Book Review Notes & Comments International Journal of Kurdish Studies Vol.8 /2 (August2022) International Journal of Kurdish Studies Vol. 8 Issue 2 (August 2022) ISSN:2149-2751 Editorial EN PDF Hasan KARACAN ARTICLES Social and Political Foundations of Constitutionalism in the Middle East: The First Constitutional Movements in Tunisia, Ottoman Turkey, EN PDF Egypt, and Iran Muhammed KARAKUŞ & Mehmet Akif KOÇ Relationship of History and Music: Traces of Historical Events in Kurdish Music and Evdalê Zeynikê TR PDF Tekin ÇİFÇİ USSR’s Policy Towards the Kurds of Türkiye, 1945-1960 TR PDF Ali BAŞARAN Salim Barakat’s Genuine Novelistic Techniques: Sages of Darkness EN PDF Aviva BUTT Ethnicity and Identities in Iran: Progress and Equality Kameel AHMADY EN PDF An Assessment of Narrative Genres in Kurdish Folklore (Epos, Bayt and Narrative Songs) KR PDF Yaşar KAPLAN The Use of Metaphor in the Construction of the Representation of Reality with Ethical Principles on the Example of the Movie 'The Well' in Documentary Cinema TR PDF Şenay TANRIVERMİŞ VI Article International Journal of Kurdish Studies 8 (2), pp. 150-174 http://www.ijoks.com Social and Political Foundations of Constitutionalism in the Middle East: The First Constitutional Movements in Tunisia, Ottoman Turkey, Egypt, and Iran Muhammed KARAKUŞ1 & Mehmet Akif KOÇ2 Received: Apr 14, 2022 Reviewed: Apr 24, 2022 Accepted: May 22, 2022 Abstract Although constitutionalism movements have their roots in the efforts to limit the power of European monarchies beginning with Magna Carta, constitutionalism in the modern sense is the product of the global political and social conditions created by the French Revolution of 1789. In the 19th century, when empires struggled for power in Europe and global economic crises shook the world, constitutionalism appeared as a solution to these crises. In this context, in addition to global constitutional revolutions such as in Japan, Russia, Mexico, and China, the ―Eastern‖ and Muslim societies of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) also struggled for their constitutional movements. Although they could not satisfy the expectations as a result of domestic and regional circumstances, the first constitutional movements in Tunisia (1861), Ottoman Turkey (1876), Egypt (1881), and Iran (1905) provided road maps for the modern nation-states of the following years. This study examines these constitutionalism movements in order to understand their social, political, and economic dynamics and organizational mechanisms, as well as their impact on today‘s Middle Eastern politics. Keywords: Constitutionalism, Ottoman Turkey, Iran, Egypt, Tunisia 1 Ph.D. Candidate, Social Sciences University of Ankara, ORCID: 0000-0003-0078-8603, [email protected] 2Corresponding Author, Ph.D. Candidate, Social Sciences University of Ankara, ORCID:0000-0001-5179-6027, [email protected] Karakuş & Koç Social and Political Foundations of Constitutionalism in the Middle East Recommended citation: Karakuş, M. Koç, M. A. (2022). Social and Political Foundations of Constitutionalism in the Middle East: The First Constitutional Movements in Tunisia, Ottoman Turkey, Egypt, and Iran. International Journal of Kurdish Studies 8 (2), 150-174, DOI:https://doi.org/10.21600/ijoks.1103307 Ortadoğu'da Anayasacılığn Toplumsal ve Siyasal Temelleri: Tunus, Osmanlı Devleti, Mısır ve İran'da İlk Anayasacılık Hareketlerinin Ortaya Çıkışı Öz Monarşilerin etki alanını sınırlamak anlamında anayasacılık hareketlerinin geçmişi eskiye dayansa da, modern anlamda anayasacılık 1789 Fransız Devrimi‘nin doğurduğu küresel politik ve toplumsal şartların ürünüdür. Avrupa‘da imparatorlukların güç mücadelesine girdiği ve küresel ekonomik krizlerin dünyayı sarstığı 19. yüzyılda, anayasacılık eğilimleri mevcut siyasi ve ekonomik krizlere çare olarak ortaya konuldu. Bu bağlamda Japonya, Rusya, Meksika, Çin gibi küresel anayasacı devrimlerin yanında Orta Doğu ve Kuzey Afrika‘nın ―Doğulu‖ ve Müslüman toplumları da kendi anayasacılık hareketlerini ortaya çıkardı. Her ne kadar başlangıç itibariyle istenen etkiyi doğurmayıp, iç ve bölgesel şartlar tarafından başarısız kılınsa da Tunus (1861), Türkiye (1876), Mısır (1881) ve İran‘daki (1905) ilk anayasacılık hareketleri, sonraki yıllarda kurulacak modern ulus-devletler için bir yol haritası ortaya koydu Bu çalışma, sözkonusu Bu çalışma, sözkonusu anayasacılık hareketleri ve bunların sosyal, politik ve ekonomik dinamikleri ve örgütsel mekanizmalarının yanısıra, günümüz Ortadoğu siyaseti üzerindeki etkilerini incelemektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Anayasacılık, Meşrutiyet, Türkiye, İran, Mısır, Tunus Introduction A constitution is primarily about limiting political authority. It defines the scope of rights, responsibilities, and duties of citizenship. It also exudes issues and activities related to the state‘s structure, providing ―the quality regulations that have administrative, legal, sociological and even economic and military dimensions‖ (Korkut, 2016). From liberal democracies to totalitarian regimes in this modern era, every state has a constitution (written or not) as the supreme law. Constitutionalism, on the other hand, ―essentially means limited government, a system in which the state power is divided and limited by the separation of powers and other effective mechanisms of checks-and-balances, with the ultimate aim of affording strong protection for individual rights and liberties‖ (Özbudun, 2019). In other words, from a legal perspective, it is a vision of systematical regulation in which the political power is expected to be legitimized and limited by the law. By establishing the constitutional regimes, this approach aims to make democratic institutions and ideas such as citizenship, political representation, and the separation of powers the primary vehicle for redefining politics, not just within western political philosophy. International Journal of Kurdish Studies Vol.8/2 ( August 2022 ) 15 1 Karakuş & Koç Social and Political Foundations of Constitutionalism in the Middle East The roots of constitutionalism go way back to the political theories of John Locke. The concept is based on the idea that the power of the government should be legally limited through a set of rules, principles, or values (Waluchow, 2019). In a historical sense, back in 1215, a group of wealthy nobles forced King John of England to sign the Magna Carta, a set of specific limits on the king‘s power. It was the first time everyone living in a kingdom, including the king, became subject to the law. Some of the Magna Carta‘s core principles echoed in England when King William III signed the English Bill of Rights that outlined English citizens‘ rights, and placed limits on the monarch and the Parliament. Like the Magna Carta, the English Bill of Rights was the foundation stone of constitutional and parliamentary government globally (Parliament of Australia , 2019). Constitutions in the modern sense were put into practice in the US Constitution in 1787 and the French one in 1791. Since then, it has become one of the most widespread political trends (Fasone, 2019). The foreign ideas associated with new forms of western influence led to constitutionalism or parliamentarism in terms of limiting the power of monarchy emerging as a political resurgence. It was an incomplete movement; it gave rise to a genuinely democratic experiment in Tunisia, Ottoman Turkey, Egypt, and Iran in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. This article aims to explain the appearance of constitutionalism in the Middle East and North African countries by discussing the differing and common local circumstances creating the first such experiments. Those countries establish a relatively more recent example of constitutionalism movements in a region generally known for monarchy and oppressive regimes than their western counterparts. 1. Tunisia The decline of Berber dynasties in the 15th and 16th centuries created a power vacuum in the Mediterranean, attracting Spain‘s attention in the west and Ottoman in the east. These most powerful Mediterranean states of that time rivaled each other throughout much of the 16th century to control the valuable coastal strip of North Africa. The territories recovered from Spain in 1535 were then given a formal status as protectorates of the Ottoman Empire. A Pasha (chief) was appointed as the holder of civil and military authority; however, Tunisia was ruled by a local dynasty of ―Bey‖ (technically subordinate to the Turkish Sultan but in practice independent). Ottomans had no direct influence in the region, which became more apparent when European powers embarked on colonial ambitions. While Tunisian leaders struggled to placate enormous powers, they simultaneously intended to strengthen the state within. With the help of a Western adviser, Ahmad Bey, modernizing reforms were introduced; however, in the end, they created a heavy burden of debt, high taxes, and increased unrest in the countryside (Britannica Encyclopædia, 2019). In 1839, the administration in Istanbul introduced several reforms known as The Gülhane Hatt-ı Şerif or Tanzimât Fermânı (Imperial Edict of Reorganization); however, due to the autonomy of the International Journal of Kurdish Studies Vol.8/2 ( August 2022 ) 15 2 Karakuş & Koç Social and Political Foundations of Constitutionalism in the Middle East dynasty and the personal resistance of Ahmad Bey, these reforms were not implemented in Tunisia. Following the decline of the Ottoman rule over the territory, long-lasting corruption and civil disturbances3 during and after the reign of Ahmad Bey prompted the British and French to force the successor Mohamed Bey (1855-1859) to issue Tunisia‘s first constitutional charter- the Fundamental Pact (Ahd al-Amān) in 1857. Richard Wood from Britain and Leon Roches from France ensured the promulgation of reforms and rules governing (fortifying the security of both Tunisians and foreigners) relations between government and foreigners. Although Mohamed Bey was to solidify his rule and appease the intervening powers, ―establishing exclusive courts for foreigners to handle matters concerning Europeans‖ and ―granting non-Tunisians to conduct business and own property in Tunisia‖ resulted in limits on the powers of the Bey‘s office (Broadley, 1882, s. 79). As a civil rights charter modeled on the Ottoman rescript of 1839, the pact spurred Tunisian oppositions to pressure the Bey to enact structural reforms. The demand for notables for drawing up a formal constitution and the pressures of foreign consuls also continued during Muhammad al-Sadiq Bey4 (1859–1873). A commission was set up to materialize the draft constitution following the Fundamental Pact, and it came into effect in 1881; it was the same year Tunisia became an official French protectorate5 due to being incapable of paying the foreign loans. The Beys of Tunisia always hoped to obstruct intervention by extending the limits of rights of foreigners; however, the adoption of the Constitution did not disrupt the French to exert its control over North African possessions (Borowiec, 1998). ―Law on the State of Tunisia‖ (qanun al-dawla altunisiyya) was the first promulgated Constitution in the Islamic world and assumed a limited and hereditary monarchy. It ―established a responsible ministry and the separation of powers along the lines of other such charters existing in Europe at the time‖ (Borowiec, 1998, s. 15). The Bey served as the head of state while the prime minister headed the government in charge of the newly established secular Supreme Council. Consisting of 60 members chosen by the Bey, the Supreme Council both ―empowered to review decisions of the sharia courts‖ and ―initiated legislation, approved tax measures, supervised the military establishment, and appointed public officials‖ (Globalsecurity.org, 2019). Not many celebrated this transformation, and the newly emerged Constitution created widespread resentment from provincial notables and tribal chiefs who considered it an attack on local and tribal autonomy. Nation-wide rebellions by the opponents (France officially supported the Bey, while also negotiating with Ali Ben Ghedhahem, the prominent rebel leader, in case he decided to overthrow the Bey (Toussaint, 2019) and widespread resentment among the public, mainly due to the mejba (head tax) applied to the military, scholars/teachers and government officials who had been exempted) forced the suspension of the Constitution as an emergency measure in 1864. 3The underlying reason was the result of the execution of a Tunisian Jew by the order of the Bey for having blasphemed Islam (Encyclopedia, 2019). 4 In his term of office new debts accumulated.4 Famine and cholera epidemic in many parts of the country created high tensions. The influence of the European powers, their commercial interests and their bankers, sharply increased. 5 French used the pretext of debts, the Berber raids from Tunisia into Algeria, French troops entered into Tunisian territory, and ―Treaty of Bardo‖ or Kasr-es-Said was signed. Officially, Tunisia became a protectorate. (Borowiec, 1998, s. p.16). International Journal of Kurdish Studies Vol.8/2 ( August 2022 ) 15 3